The elite, the Effendiyya, and the growth of nationalism and Pan-arabism in Hashemite Iraq, 1921-1958

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 227-250

  Eppel, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346367554     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800065880     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
2. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
3. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
4. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
5. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
6. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
7. Albert Hourani, "Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables," in Beginning of Modernization in the Middle East, ed. William R. Polk and Richard Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 61-68; Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); idem, "The Rise of Arabism in Syria," Middle East Journal 16 (Spring, 1962); Ruth Roded, "Social Patterns among the Urban Elite of Syria during the Late Ottoman Period 1876-1918," in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. David Kushner (Jerusalem and Leiden: Yad Ben Zvi and E. J. Brill, 1986), 146-65; idem, "Ottoman Service as a Vehicle for the Rise of New Upstarts Among the Urban Elite Families of Syria in the Last Decades of Ottoman Rule," in Studies in Islamic Society: Contributions in Memory of Gabriel Baer, ed. Gabriel R. Warburg and Gad G. Gilbar (Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1984), 63-94; Moshe Maoz, "The Impact of Modernization on Syrian Politics and Society during the Early Tanzimat Period," in Beginning of Modernization, 333-49; Ehud Toledano, State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
8. Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); David Pool, "Politics of Patronage, Elites and Social Structure in Iraq" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1972).
9. Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); David Pool, "Politics of Patronage, Elites and Social Structure in Iraq" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1972).
10. Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate, The Politics of Arab Nationalism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987); idem, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
11. Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate, The Politics of Arab Nationalism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987); idem, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge, London, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
12. Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1958).
13. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
14. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
15. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
16. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
17. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
18. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
19. cArabi, 1968), 60-82, 130-90; Haggai Erlich, Students and University in 20th-century Egyptian Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1988); Israel Gershoni, "The Evolution of National Culture in Modern Egypt: Intellectual Formation and Social Diffusion 1892-1945," Poetics Today 13 (1992); idem, Egypt Between Distinctiveness and Unity (Tel Aviv, 1980); idem, "Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of 'National Sentiment' in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn," in Studies in Islamic Society, 227-64; Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919-1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979); Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
20. Robert Fernea, The Shaykh and the Effendi (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).
21. Ernest Main, Iraq, From Mandate to Independence (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1935), 233-36.
22. 2, 2, 687.
23. Stanford Jay Shaw, "Some Aspects of the Aims and Achievements of the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformers," in Beginning of Modernization, 29-39; Toledano, State and Society, 71-72, 92-107.
24. Stanford Jay Shaw, "Some Aspects of the Aims and Achievements of the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Reformers," in Beginning of Modernization, 29-39; Toledano, State and Society, 71-72, 92-107.
25. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Albert Hourani, "The Arab Awakening: Forty Years Later," in The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (London: Macmillan, 1981), 205; Toledano, State and Society, 71. On the elite or traditional social class in Iraq, see also Batatu, The Old Social Classes.
26. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Albert Hourani, "The Arab Awakening: Forty Years Later," in The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (London: Macmillan, 1981), 205; Toledano, State and Society, 71. On the elite or traditional social class in Iraq, see also Batatu, The Old Social Classes.
27. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Albert Hourani, "The Arab Awakening: Forty Years Later," in The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (London: Macmillan, 1981), 205; Toledano, State and Society, 71. On the elite or traditional social class in Iraq, see also Batatu, The Old Social Classes.
28. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism, The Politics of Damascus 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Albert Hourani, "The Arab Awakening: Forty Years Later," in The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (London: Macmillan, 1981), 205; Toledano, State and Society, 71. On the elite or traditional social class in Iraq, see also Batatu, The Old Social Classes.
29. Nissim Qazaz, The Jews in Iraq in the Twentieth Century (Jerusalem, 1991), 25.
30. Toledano, State and Society, 68-87.
31. Erlich, Students and University; idem, "Students and Universities in the Political Life of Egypt After World War I," Ha-Mizrah He-Hadash 19 (1968-69): 50-77.
32. Erlich, Students and University; idem, "Students and Universities in the Political Life of Egypt After World War I," Ha-Mizrah He-Hadash 19 (1968-69): 50-77.
33. Ernest Bevin to M. Eyres (Damascus), 15 January 1947, PRO/FO/371/522365/E/12303; Bevin to Sir Hugh Stonehewer Bird (British ambassador in Baghdad), PRO/FO/371/522365/E/12303. Similar letters were sent to British representatives in Cairo, Damascus, and Beirut.
34. Ibid., Bevin to Eyres, 15 January 1947.
35. Ibid., Sir Hugh Stonehewer Bird (Baghdad) to Bevin, 10 March 1947.
36. Troutbeck (British ambassador in Baghdad) to Sir Anthony Eden, no. 6, 9 January 1953, PRO/FO/ 371/104678/EQ/1052/4.
37. Manfred Halpern, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 51-78. On the centrality of bureaucracy as a source of employment for the effendiyya, see, for example, Nazih N. M. Ayubi, Bureaucracy and Politics in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980).
38. Manfred Halpern, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 51-78. On the centrality of bureaucracy as a source of employment for the effendiyya, see, for example, Nazih N. M. Ayubi, Bureaucracy and Politics in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1980).
39. Fernea, The Shaykh. (It should be noted that Fernea cited clear characteristic traits for the effendiyya: officeholders at the lower end of state bureaucracy); Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society.
40. Fernea, The Shaykh. (It should be noted that Fernea cited clear characteristic traits for the effendiyya: officeholders at the lower end of state bureaucracy); Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society.
41. cIrāq (Baghdad, 1954), part I, 217.
42. ca, 1968); Fahim Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966); idem, The Reconstruction of Iraq, 1950-1957 (London: Atlantic Books, 1958), 211; R. D. Mathews and Matta Akrawi, Education in the Arab Countries of the Middle East (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1949).
43. ca, 1968); Fahim Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966); idem, The Reconstruction of Iraq, 1950-1957 (London: Atlantic Books, 1958), 211; R. D. Mathews and Matta Akrawi, Education in the Arab Countries of the Middle East (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1949).
44. ca, 1968); Fahim Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966); idem, The Reconstruction of Iraq, 1950-1957 (London: Atlantic Books, 1958), 211; R. D. Mathews and Matta Akrawi, Education in the Arab Countries of the Middle East (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1949).
45. ca, 1968); Fahim Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966); idem, The Reconstruction of Iraq, 1950-1957 (London: Atlantic Books, 1958), 211; R. D. Mathews and Matta Akrawi, Education in the Arab Countries of the Middle East (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1949).
46. cat al-Risala, 1944)
47. cat al-Risala, 1944)
48. cat al-Risala, 1944)
49. cat al-Risala, 1944)
50. cat al-Kashaf, 1939); C. Ernest Dawn, "The Formation of Pan-Arab Ideology in the Interwar Years," International Journal of Middle East Studies 20 (February 1988): 67-88; Simon, Iraq, 98-99.
51. cat al-Kashaf, 1939); C. Ernest Dawn, "The Formation of Pan-Arab Ideology in the Interwar Years," International Journal of Middle East Studies 20 (February 1988): 67-88; Simon, Iraq, 98-99.
52. cat al-Kashaf, 1939); C. Ernest Dawn, "The Formation of Pan-Arab Ideology in the Interwar Years," International Journal of Middle East Studies 20 (February 1988): 67-88; Simon, Iraq, 98-99.
53. cIrāq Shahāda Siyāsiyya 1980-1930 (London, 1987).
54. citar al-Haraka al-Wat + (combine dot below)aniyya al-Filast + (combine dot below)īniyya 1935-1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 51.
55. citar al-Haraka al-Wat + (combine dot below)aniyya al-Filast + (combine dot below)īniyya 1935-1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 51.
56. citar al-Haraka al-Wat + (combine dot below)aniyya al-Filast + (combine dot below)īniyya 1935-1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 51.
57. citar al-Haraka al-Wat + (combine dot below)aniyya al-Filast + (combine dot below)īniyya 1935-1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 51.
58. Eliahu Sasson, On the Way to Peace (Tel Aviv; 'Am Oved, 1978), 55-71. Part of the report by Zionist emissaries to Iraq about the meetings with Hikmat Sulayman and other Iraqi politicians. Michael Eppel, The Palestine Conflict in the History of Modern Iraq, 1928-1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1994), 54-55.
59. Eliahu Sasson, On the Way to Peace (Tel Aviv; 'Am Oved, 1978), 55-71. Part of the report by Zionist emissaries to Iraq about the meetings with Hikmat Sulayman and other Iraqi politicians. Michael Eppel, The Palestine Conflict in the History of Modern Iraq, 1928-1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1994), 54-55.
60. cIraqī (London: Riad al-Rayyes Books, 1993), 28.
61. cAskari (who served as minister of defense in the 1930s). Yasin al-Hashimi and his brother Taha all had humble origins but found their place in the conservative elite and became part of its backbone. (Admittedly, the al-Hashimi family of Baghdad was a notable family with a certain status; Yasin and Taha al-Hashimi, however, came from an impoverished branch of the family.)
62. cArabiyya, 1957); Mushtāq, Awrāq Ayyāmī, 36.
63. cArabiyya, 1957); Mushtāq, Awrāq Ayyāmī, 36.
64. cAma, 1988, new edition), 2:51.
65. cAma, 1988, new edition), 2:51.
66. cAma, 1988, new edition), 2:51.
67. Batatu, Old Social Classes, 398-99.
68. Humphrys (British ambassador in Baghdad) to Simon (British minister of foreign affairs), no. 1164, 21 December 1932, PRO/FO/406/70/E/6888.
69. Simon, Iraq, 82-114.
70. citar al-H + (combine dot below)araka al-Wataniyya al-Filast + (combine dot below)īniyya 1935-1939 (Beirut: Muasasat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya, 1980), 351. Letter from Epstein, 22 May 1938, CZA 5/25/ 3528.
71. Concerning that coup and the trends of the subsequently established government, see Mohammad A. Tarbush, The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Kegan Paul International, 1982), 121-49.
72. Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London and Toronto: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966), 103-92; Walid M. S. Hamdi, Rashid Ali al-Gailani and the Nationalist Movement in Iraq, 1939-1941 (London: Darf, 1987); Tarbush, Military in Politics, 167-82.
73. Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London and Toronto: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966), 103-92; Walid M. S. Hamdi, Rashid Ali al-Gailani and the Nationalist Movement in Iraq, 1939-1941 (London: Darf, 1987); Tarbush, Military in Politics, 167-82.
74. Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London and Toronto: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966), 103-92; Walid M. S. Hamdi, Rashid Ali al-Gailani and the Nationalist Movement in Iraq, 1939-1941 (London: Darf, 1987); Tarbush, Military in Politics, 167-82.
75. Mack (Baghdad) to Bevin, no. 104, 29 March 1948, PRO/FO/371/68448/E/4291. Concerning the economic situation in Iraq in the autumn of 1947, see Political Review of Iraq for the Year 1947, PRO/FO/ 371/68443/E/834. On the economic situation in 1948, and the desperate attempts by the regent and the minister of finance to obtain relief from Britain in the form of food and cash payments to cover the salaries of the civil service, see PRO/FO/624/141, 19 March 1948; see also Mack to Foreign Office, no. 408, 14 April 1948, PRO/FO/371/68448/E/4793.
76. cAli movement.
77. About Salih Jabr, see Wm. Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 321. See also Busk (Baghdad) to Bevin, 6 September 1946, PRO/FO/371/52402/E/9318.
78. ca, 1965), 227-31. About the wathba, see also Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1983), 103-4.
79. ca, 1965), 227-31. About the wathba, see also Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1983), 103-4.
80. ca, 1965), 227-31. About the wathba, see also Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1983), 103-4.
81. Eppel, The Palestine Conflict, 177-89.
82. Marion Farouk Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, "The Transformation of Land Tenure and Rural Social Structure in Central and Southern Iraq, 1870-1958," International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (March 1983): 493-95; Albertine Jwaidah, "Midhat Pasha and the Land System of Lower Iraq," St. Antony's Papers III (1963): 106-36; idem, "Aspects of Land Tenure and Social Change in Lower Iraq During Late Ottoman Times," in Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, ed. Tarif Khalidi (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984).
83. Marion Farouk Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, "The Transformation of Land Tenure and Rural Social Structure in Central and Southern Iraq, 1870-1958," International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (March 1983): 493-95; Albertine Jwaidah, "Midhat Pasha and the Land System of Lower Iraq," St. Antony's Papers III (1963): 106-36; idem, "Aspects of Land Tenure and Social Change in Lower Iraq During Late Ottoman Times," in Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, ed. Tarif Khalidi (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984).
84. Marion Farouk Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, "The Transformation of Land Tenure and Rural Social Structure in Central and Southern Iraq, 1870-1958," International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (March 1983): 493-95; Albertine Jwaidah, "Midhat Pasha and the Land System of Lower Iraq," St. Antony's Papers III (1963): 106-36; idem, "Aspects of Land Tenure and Social Change in Lower Iraq During Late Ottoman Times," in Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, ed. Tarif Khalidi (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984).
85. Sluglett, and Sluglett, "The Transformation," 487-89; David Pool, "From Elite to Class: The Transformation of Iraqi Leadership 1920-1939," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (November 1980): 340-47.
86. Sluglett, and Sluglett, "The Transformation," 487-89; David Pool, "From Elite to Class: The Transformation of Iraqi Leadership 1920-1939," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (November 1980): 340-47.
87. Batatu, Old Social Classes, 100-104.
88. Ibid., 103. A further discussion of developments among the elite can be found in Ayad al-Qazzaz, "Power Elite in Iraq, 1920-1958," The Muslim World LXI (1971): 267-82.
89. Ibid., 103. A further discussion of developments among the elite can be found in Ayad al-Qazzaz, "Power Elite in Iraq, 1920-1958," The Muslim World LXI (1971): 267-82.
90. Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), 48-51; A. D. Mac-Donald, "The Political Developments in Iraq Leading Up to the Rising in the Spring of 1935," Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 36 (1936).
91. Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), 48-51; A. D. Mac-Donald, "The Political Developments in Iraq Leading Up to the Rising in the Spring of 1935," Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 36 (1936).
92. cIraq Sābiq (Beirut: Dar Maktabat al-Hayat, 1971), 84.
93. cAz + (combine dot below)m (Beirut: al-Dar al-Mutahida lil-Nashr, 1973), 2:310-11, 445.
94. Batatu, Old Social Classes, 354-57; Troutbeck (Baghdad) to Churchill, no. 108, 22 July 1953, PRO/ FO/371/104665/EQ/1016/32.
95. Concerning Salih Jabr's efforts to reconcile the tendencies of his various supporters - the effendiyya, the land-owning tribal notables, and the elite - while exploiting the latter's fear of revolution following the fall of the monarchy, see Beeley (Baghdad) to Furlonge (FO), no. 118, 21 August 1952, PRO/FO/371/ 98737/E/1017/6.
96. ca wal-Nashr, 1970). See, for example, the article by al-Chādirchī, Sadā al-Ahālī, 17 October 1949.
97. ca wal-Nashr, 1970). See, for example, the article by al-Chādirchī, Sadā al-Ahālī, 17 October 1949.
98. On Nuri's conservative attitudes in the framework of the struggle and challenges of the 1950s, see Troutbeck (Baghdad) to Eden, 3 November 1954, PRO/FO/371/110991/VQ/1015/79; Troutbeck (Baghdad) to R. Allen, 10 February 1954, PRO/FO/371/110998/VQ/1015/12.
99. cIbar (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Jadid, 1965), 105; Mohammad Fadhil al-Jamali, "Iraq Under General Nuri," Middle East Forum 15 (1964): 19; Troutbeck (Baghdad) to Eden, no. 260, 1 December, 1953, PRO/FO/371/ 104677/EQ/10345/3. Also, on Jamali's trends, see PRO/FO/371/104666/EQ/1016/52. Concerning Salih Jabr's trends and the hopes entertained of Jabr by British diplomats inspired by Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin, see Busk (British charge d'affaires in Iraq) to FO, no. 761, 23 September 1946, PRO/FO/371/52402/ E/9957. See also Michael Eppel, "Iraqi Politics and Regional Policies, 1945-1949," Middle Eastern Studies 28 (January 1992): 112.
100. cIbar (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Jadid, 1965), 105; Mohammad Fadhil al-Jamali, "Iraq Under General Nuri," Middle East Forum 15 (1964): 19; Troutbeck (Baghdad) to Eden, no. 260, 1 December, 1953, PRO/FO/371/ 104677/EQ/10345/3. Also, on Jamali's trends, see PRO/FO/371/104666/EQ/1016/52. Concerning Salih Jabr's trends and the hopes entertained of Jabr by British diplomats inspired by Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin, see Busk (British charge d'affaires in Iraq) to FO, no. 761, 23 September 1946, PRO/FO/371/52402/ E/9957. See also Michael Eppel, "Iraqi Politics and Regional Policies, 1945-1949," Middle Eastern Studies 28 (January 1992): 112.
101. cIbar (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Jadid, 1965), 105; Mohammad Fadhil al-Jamali, "Iraq Under General Nuri," Middle East Forum 15 (1964): 19; Troutbeck (Baghdad) to Eden, no. 260, 1 December, 1953, PRO/FO/371/ 104677/EQ/10345/3. Also, on Jamali's trends, see PRO/FO/371/104666/EQ/1016/52. Concerning Salih Jabr's trends and the hopes entertained of Jabr by British diplomats inspired by Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin, see Busk (British charge d'affaires in Iraq) to FO, no. 761, 23 September 1946, PRO/FO/371/52402/ E/9957. See also Michael Eppel, "Iraqi Politics and Regional Policies, 1945-1949," Middle Eastern Studies 28 (January 1992): 112.
102. Humphrys (Baghdad) to Simon (British foreign minister), no. 27, 25 March 1933, PRO/FO/371/ 16903/E/1853.
103. On the role of the Palestine question in Iraqi political history, see Eppel, The Palestine Conflict (see n. 26).
104. For a report on the crumbling of the tribal structure and the increasing alienation between the tribal notables who had become land-owners and the tribesmen who had become serfs, fellahin, or city-dwellers against their will, see W. Thesiger, "The Mass Movement of Tribesmen from Amara Liwa to Baghdad and Basra," in a dispatch from the British Embassy (Baghdad) to the Levant Department, 5 August 1955, PRO/FO/371/115748/VQ/1015/11.
105. Uriel Dann Iraq Under Qasim (Jerusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1969); Robert Fernea and W. M. Roger Louis, eds., The Iraqi Revolution of 1958, The Old Social Classes Revisited (London: I. B. Tauris, 1991).
106. Uriel Dann Iraq Under Qasim (Jerusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1969); Robert Fernea and W. M. Roger Louis, eds., The Iraqi Revolution of 1958, The Old Social Classes Revisited (London: I. B. Tauris, 1991).