The formation of Pan-Arab ideology in the interwar years

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 1988, Pages 67-91

  Dawn, C Ernest ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

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EID: 84928840521     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: 14716380     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800057512     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973) (these essays were first published in 1957–1962).
2. The views of George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1937)
3. and Hans Kohn, A History of Nationalism in the East, Margaret M. Green, trans. (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1939), are still to be found, in whole or in part, and often combined.
4. Zeine N. Zeine, Arab-Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism (Beirut: Khayat's, 1958) (new edition: The Emergence of Arab Nationalism: With a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East, Beirut: Khayat's, 1966)
5. departs radically from Antonius with respect to the nineteenth century, but like him regards Arab separatism as a reaction to the Committee of Union and Progress Turkification and Turkism. A more subtle version of the same interpretation is given by A. L. Tibawi, A Modern History of Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine (London: Macmillan and New York: St, Martin's Press, 1969).
6. Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: A Critical Enquiry, Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, ed. and trans. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981; the German original was published in 1971) includes Dawn's findings in a model of rampant eclecticism, which combines the Antonius and Kohn theses (see esp. pp. 87–89).
7. Dawn's conclusions are ambiguously accepted by Rashid Ismail Khalidi, British Policy Towards Syria and Palestine, 1906–1914: A Study of the Antecedents of the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and the Balfour Declaration (London: Ithaca Press for the Middle East Center, St. Anthony's College, Oxford, 1980)
8. and “Social Factors in the Rise of the Arab Movement in Syria,” From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam, Said Amir Arjomand, ed. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), pp. 53–70;
9. and by Albert Hourani, “‘The Arab Awakening’ Forty Years After,” The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981), pp. 201–3, but both seem to believe that the Arab nationalists had become a majority or a near majority by 1914 as a result of Arab reaction to CUP policies and to Zionism.
10. William L. Cleveland, The Making of an Arab Nationalist: Ottomanism and Arabism in the Life and Thought of Sati˓ al-Husri (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971)
11. and Islam Against the West: Shakib Arslan and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985), examines in detail the careers of two prominent pre-1918 Ottomanist who converted to Arabism after the War.
12. Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: The Politics of Damascus 1860–1920 (Cambridge, London, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) develops and expands on Dawn's conclusions with much new material.
13. Elie Kedourie in various articles collected in The Chatham House Version and Other Middle-Eastern Studies, 1st ed. (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970), esp. pp. 206, 213–19, 287–90, 302–3, 306, 319–20, 324, 330, 333, 338, 342, 369, 378–79, 381
14. and in Arabic Political Memoirs and other Studies (London: Frank Cass, 1974), esp. pp. 125, 136, 165–66, 168, 178, believes that Arab nationalism was created by the spread of European theological and political doctrines, which weakened the hold of Islam and Christianity, and was established by military officers installed in power by the British after World War I, and spread by them and the British and by King Faruq and his entourage. Arab nationalism is a post-World War I phenomenon.
15. Much the same view is set forth by Sylvia G. Haim, “Introduction,” Arab Nationalism: An Anthology (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1962), esp. pp. 10, 15, 18–19, 27, 35, 49, 56–61, 70 n. 148, 72 at n. 156.
16. Hisham Sharabi, Arab Intellectuals and the West: The Formative Years, 1875–1914 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1970), makes no reference to Dawn's essays but in similar fashion depicts the prewar Arab nationalist political movement as a minority movement composed of privileged persons pursuing office, interest, and privilege and little different in these respects from their opponents (see esp. 88–89, 115, 116–17, 122, 123).
17. Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad ˓Abduh and Rashid Rida (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966);
18. Cleveland, al-Husri
19. idem., Arslan: Tibi;
20. Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers, Middle Eastern Monographs, 9 (London: Oxford University Press, 1969);
21. Haim, Arab Nationalism; Hazem Zaki Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1956).
22. (Jerusalem: Matba˓a Bayt al-Muqaddis, 1923.)
23. 1st ed. (Cairo: Matb˓a al-Salafiyya, 1348-[1929])
24. d ed. (1350/[1931]), 5th ed. (Haifa: al-Maktaba al-˓Arabiyya al-Wataniyya, [1353]-[1934])
25. th ed. (Damascus: Maktaba al-˓Irfa, 1357-1938).
26. 1st ed. (Cairo: al-Matba˓a al-Salafiyya, 1349-[1930])
27. d ed. (Haifa: al-Maktaba al-Wataniyya al-˓Arabiyya and Damascus: Matba˓a al-Sadaqa, 1352-[1933])
28. d ed. (Damascus: Maktaba al-˓Irfa, 1357H/AD1938).
29. 1st ed. (Cairo: Matba˓a al-Salafiyya, 1350-[1931])
30. d ed. (Jerusalem: Matba a Dar al-Aytam al-lslami al-Sana˓iyya, 1355-1936).
31. 1st ed. (Baghdad: Matba˓a al-Ma˓arif, 1350-1931)
32. Abdul Latif Tibawi, Arab Education in Mandatory Palestine: A Study of Three Decades of British Administration (London: Luzac, 1956), pp. 28–38, 95–97, 193–99;
33. Humphrey Ernest Bowman, Middle-East Window (London, New York, and Toronto: Longmans, Green and Co., 1942), pp. 310–14;
34. MMIAD, 4 (1924), 428–29; 11 (1931), 704;
35. Reeva S. Simon, “The Teaching of History in Iraq before the Rashid Ali Coup of 1941,” Middle Eastern Studies, 22 (1986), 42;
36. Nabih Amin Faris, “The Arabs and Their History,” The Middle East Journal (MEJ), 8 (1954), 156–57;
37. Nicola A. Ziadeh, “Recent Arabic Literature on Arabism,” MEJ, 6 (1952), 471.
38. Haim points to ˓Abduh's “implicit” “glorification of Arab Islam and … depreciation of Ottoman Islam” (p. 21)
39. and calls Kawakibi “the first true intellectual precursor of modern secular Pan-Arabism” (p. 27)
40. but apparently does not derive Arab nationalism from their thought. Their main influence was, like that of Afghani and others, to “increase skepticism concerning Islam” among Muslims (p. 16). Haim believes that real Arab nationalism was an importation from the West at the time of World War I and that there was no “serious attempt to define [its] meaning” until the late 1930s (p. 35).
41. In order to survive, the newly imported secular Arabism had to become “consonant with” Islam (p. 54).
42. Sharabi divides the Islamic modernists of most students into reformists (e.g., ˓Abduh) and secularists (e.g., Kawakibi) and assigns to the secularists the position of leading the Arab nationalist movement before 1914 until the end of the interwar period, when it finally collapsed in the face of secular Arab nationalism, which had been created by the Lebanese Christians (see esp. pp. 64, 76–77, 91, 102–3, 107 n. 4, 108–9, 111–12, 118, 122, 123, 128, 131–32, 133).
43. Tibi (pp. 64–68)
44. holds that Islamic modernism contributed to the formation of Arab nationalism, that Kawakibi was an “important pioneer of Arab nationalism” (p. 67)
45. but that Arab nationalism was a secular movement, originating with the Lebanese Christians, “which was eventually to destroy the Islamic revitalization movement” (p. 68), even though Islam was not abandoned by the Arab nationalists.
46. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 2–3, 87 (quotation), 261;
47. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 70;
48. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 308, 927 (hereafter, when the first edition is cited, all editions have the text unless otherwise noted; when subsequent editions are cited, the text occurs in all subsequent editions unless otherwise noted);
49. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Times, A History of the Early World: An Introduction to the Study of Ancient History and the Career of Early Man (Boston, New York, etc.: Ginn, 1916);
50. Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib, Ittijah al-mawjat al-bashariyya fi-jazira al-˓arab (Cairo: al-Matba˓a al-Salafiyya, 1344-1925), pp. 63–64 (n. 1 to p. 63);
51. Jayms Hanri Birastid, al-˓Usur al-qadima was huwa tamhid li-dars al-ta'rikh al-qadim wa a˓mal al-insan al-awwal, Da'ud Qurban, trans. (Beirut: al-Matba˓a al-Amayrikaniyya, 1926), 2d ed. (1930);
52. When all editions have the same text, only the second edition is cited, I have dealt more extensively with Miqdadi in “An Arab Nationalist View of World Politics and History in the Inter-War Period—Darwish al-Miqdadi,” to appear in The Great Powers in the Middle East: 1919–1939, Uriel Dann, ed. (London: Holmes and Meier).
53. Al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 35, 86, 317, 318, 2d ed., pp. 90, 360, 6th ed., pp. 315, 317.
54. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 1, 451.
55. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 15, 17–18, 82–83;
56. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 67–68, 71, 73, 76–77;
57. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 10–13;
58. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-qadim, 1st ed., pp. 70–76;
59. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 12–13, 16–19, 1939 ed., p. 7, is certain that Hammurabi was Arab.
60. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 3, 7–8, 10–12.
61. Khatib, passim, esp. pp. 4–6, 32–35, 46–50, 63–64 (n. 1 to p. 63; quotation from Shurayqi).
62. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 4–5, 11–13, 17–18, 61–72;
63. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 3–9;
64. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-qadim, 1st ed., pp. 35–40;
65. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 10–13, 451.
66. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 6, 14, 106;
67. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 4–5, 11–14 (Husri's direct influence is acknowledged, p. 5 n. 1);
68. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., p. 7;
69. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-qadim, 1st ed., p. 39;
70. Miqdadi, p. 451.
71. Miqdadi, p. 59;
72. ˓Abd al-Malik al-Nashif, ed., Bayna jahiliyyatayn: masrahiyya, by Darwish al-Miqdadi (Beirut: Dar al-˓Ilm li-al-Malayin, 1967), p. 7.
73. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 11–13, 17–18;
74. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 23–24, 61–62, 73–75;
75. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 15–16, 19, 20, 27–31, 45–46, 51;
76. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 16–21, 31–35;
77. MMIAD, 3 (1923), 186, 317–18; 17 (1942), 311–18, 392–407, 487–500.
78. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 172–75, 209;
79. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 2, 80–81;
80. ’rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 211, 236;
81. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 332–33, 336.
82. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 257–60;
83. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 255–57, 285, 287–89;
84. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 460, 462–63, 488, 503–4;
85. Tiyudur Arunuwitsch Rudhstayn, Ta'rikh misr qabla al-ihtilal al-britani wa-ba˓dahu, ˓Ali Ahmad Shukri, trans. (Cairo, 1345-1927)
86. a translation of Fedor Aronovich (Theodore) Rothstein, Egypt's Ruin: A Financial and Administrative Record (London: A. C. Fifield, 1910);
87. Shakib Arslan, ed., Hadir al-˓alam al-islami, by Luthruf Situdard, ˓Ajjaj Nuwayhid, trans., 2 vols. (Cairo: Matba˓a ˓lsa al-Babi al-Halibi, 1343-1925), 2, 276 n. 1, 2d ed., 4 vols. (1352/1933); IV, 244 n. 1;
88. MMIAD, 4 (1924), 423–24; 8 (1928), 245; 9 (1929), 574–75; 10 (1930), 507–8.
89. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 461–62, 511, 519–20;
90. MMIAD, 7 (1927), 177; 8 (1928), 724–25, 730–39; 9 (1929), 407–8; 12 (1932), 719.
91. Breasted, pp. 172–74, 177, 181–82, 217–18.
92. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 49–52, 76–77, 104–5, 190 (quotations, pp. 49, 77).
93. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 6, 13, 144, 147, 148, 168–69;
94. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 14;
95. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-qadim, 1st ed., pp. 126, 131, 146, 200; 2d ed., pp. 18–20, 95, 107, 113.
96. E.g., the Marxist writer, Bandali Jawzi, Min ta'rikh al-harakat al-fikriyya fi al-islam: Min ta'rikh al-haraka al-ijtima˓iyya Vol. I (Jerusalem, 1928), pp. 6–7;
97. MMIAD, 9 (1929), 402, 403.
98. Khatib, pp. 64–65.
99. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 11, 312, 332, 483–84; 2d ed., pp. 5–8, 252, 362.
100. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 47, 48–49, 51, 56, 83–84;
101. Miqdadi, 2d ed., 37–38.
102. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 47, 56–57, 70, 84;
103. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 23–25, 37–39, 41–42.
104. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 22, 27–28, 37, 59–60, 64;
105. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 111–13.
106. Kitib taba˒†i˓ al-islibdad wa-sari˓ al-istib˓ad, in al-A˓mal al-kamila, Muhammad ˓ Imara, ed., (Cairo: al-Hay˒a al-Misriyya li-al-Ta'lif wa-al-Nashr, 1970), pp. 374–84, esp. p. 378;
107. for a translation, see Sami A. Hanna and George H. Gardner, Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1969), pp. 217–24, esp. p. 219.
108. Hadir al-˓alam al-islami, 1st ed., 2, 377; 2d ed., IV, 362–63.
109. Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 137–38 (n. 1 to p. 137);
110. al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 64, 121.
111. ™MMIAD, 5 (1925), 393–94; 11 (1931), 190–91; 13 (1933), 253–54; 15 (1937), 456–65; 16 (1941), 381.
112. MMIAD, 9(1929), 125.
113. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, al-A˓mal al-kamila, Muhammad ˓Imara, ed. (Cairo: al-Mu'assasa al-Misriyya al-˓Amma li al-Ta'lif wa-al-Nashr, 1968), pp. 414–23 (for Abu Dharr, pp. 421–23);
114. a translation is given in Hanna and Gardner, pp. 267–74
115. (Abu Dharr, pp. 273–74).
116. Miqdadi, 1st ed., p. 249, 2d ed., pp. 31–32, 60–65, 93, 188, 3d ed., pp. 22, 188, 1939 ed., pp. 37–41, 48–49, 75, 159.
117. Hadir al-˓alam al-islami, 2d ed., 1, 187.
118. Les schisimes dans l'Islam: Introduction a une etude de la religion musulmane (Paris: Payot, 1965), p. 6 n. 13.
119. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 83–88, 100–101, 102–4, 108, 113;
120. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 41, 47, 56, 67, 110, 112–14, 115, 131, 141, 164, 196;
121. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 59, 63, 65, 70, 80–81, 85, 86, 90, 102, 113, 116, 138, 140, 147, 152, 186, 230, 233–34, 280, 317;
122. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 1, 64–65, 130–33, 142, 173–74, 451;
123. Arslan, 2d ed., 1, 28–31.
124. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 2, 106–7, 164, 168;
125. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 181–82;
126. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 358–60, 368–71, 376, 424, 445;
127. Arslan, 2d ed., 1, 117–27.
128. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 134–35, 144, 146–49, 216–17;
129. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 2, 26–29, 39–40, 78–79; I, 134, 152–53, 156–58, 160–62, 168–70, 184–85, 187, 196, 210;
130. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-carabi, 1st ed., pp. 186, 193–94, 289;
131. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 138–39, 243, 256–57, 318, 320, 327, 330, 339, 348–50, 472.
132. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 234–37, 252–54, 261–68;
133. MMIAD, 5 (1925), 104; 7 (1927), 177–78, 182; 9 (1929), 80–94;
134. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 212, 259, 297–98, 2d ed., pp. 325–26;
135. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 472–92.
136. Barghuthi and Tuta, p. 257;
137. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 266–67, 292, 297–98;
138. Arslan, 1st ed., 2, 27–29, 51–52;
139. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 315, 331, 354, 360, 362, 374, 417–18, 472–74, 482–83, 492.
140. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 35, 162, 164;
141. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 103, 132, 160–61, 219–20.
142. MMIAD, 8 (1928), 720, 721, 723.
143. Arslan, 1st ed., 1, 8–9 (n. 1 to p. 8), 2d ed., 1, 162–63;
144. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 1, 128, 206, II, 3–4, 10, 18–19, 21–24;
145. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 119, 156–57, 171–72, 200–201, 205;
146. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 104–5, 144.
147. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 243, 245–46, 312.
148. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 209–10, 217 (quotation, p. 217);
149. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 2, 148;
150. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 151, 184, 219, 229–30, 237, 246–50, 270;
151. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 332, 420–22, 433, 438–39.
152. MMIAD, 4 (1924), 330–32, 9 (1929), 254–55.
153. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 451, 493, 520; 3d ed., pp. 509, 521.
154. MMIAD, 7 (1927), 433, 436, 438; 8 (1928), 720; 12 (1932), 126;
155. Sami al-Kayyali, al-Fikr al-˓arabi bayna madihi wa-hadirihi (Cairo: Matba˓a al-Ma˓arif, 1943), pp. 43–44;
156. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., p. 299;
157. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 337, 494–95.
158. MMIAD, 9 (1929), 254–55.
159. Barghuthi and Tuta, pp. 47, 98, 242–43, 286–87;
160. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 42, 508–11, 514–17;
161. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., p. 252; 2d ed., II, p. 187.
162. Darwaza, Mukhtasar, 2d ed., 2, 106, 107, 164, 187–88;
163. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., pp. 181, 182;
164. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 386–471;
165. Arslan, 2d ed., 1, 117–27.
166. Kayyali, pp. 10–11, 83–88, 94–95 (quotations p. 84).
167. Darwaza, al-Ta'rikh al-˓arabi, 1st ed., p. 255;
168. idem, al-Ta'rikh al-mutawassit wa-al-hadith, 1st ed., p. 184 (quotation), pp. 288–89;
169. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 503–4, 510, 517.
170. Miqdadi, 2d ed., pp. 144, 322–24; for Arslan and Rida’, see below.
171. Arslan, 1st ed., 2, 321 n. 2, 401–2.
172. Al-Manar, 21, 5 (Aug. 1919), 252–56 (quotations, pp. 253–54);
173. translation in La pensee politique arabe contemporaine, Anouar Abdel-Malek, ed. (Paris: Seuil, 1970), pp. 230–35 (quotations, pp. 231, 232).
174. al-Ta'rikh al-mutawassit wa-al-hadith, 1st ed., p. 296.
175. Arslan, 2, 1st ed., 299 n. 2, 377, 401.
176. MMIAD, 5 (1925), 393–94; 6 (1926), 190–91.
177. Dawn, Ottomanism to Arabism, pp. 157–59, 167, 170–74.
178. Oriente Moderno (OM) 9 (1929), 413; 10 (1930), 372; 12 (1932), 370–71, 427, 437–38, 487, 497; 13 (1933), 34–55, 127, 183, 340, 570;
179. Y. Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement, 2 vols. (London: Frank Cass, 1974–1977), 1, 77–79, 88, 191, 204, 218, 222, 234, 245, 269, 277, 302, II, 32, 36, 51–52, 60, 71, 120, 123, 124, 137, 138, 170, 193, 224, 235, 242, 243, 258, 275, 282, 292, 317 n. 31, 344 n. 71, 334 n. 116, 336 n. 176;
180. Philip S. Khoury, “Factionalism among Syrian Nationalists during the French Mandate,” IJMES, 13 (1981), 441–69.
181. Sati˓ al-Husri, Mudhakkirati fi al-˓iraq. 1921–1941, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Tali˓a, 1967–68), 1, 557;
182. Talib Mushtaq, Awraq ayyami, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Tali˓a, 1968–69), 1, 201–2;
183. Simon, pp. 36, 39, 40, 42–43.
184. For the best statements of the most sharply opposing views, see Kedourie, Chatham House Version, pp. 215–18
185. and Ralph M. Coury, “Who ‘Invented’ Egyptian Arab Nationalism?” IJMES, 14(1982), 249–81, 459–79.
186. Anwar al-Jundi, A˓lam wa-ashab aqlam (Cairo: Dar Nahda Misr li-Tab˓ wa-al-Nashr, n.d.), pp. 17–24, esp. 18, 24;
187. Michelangelo Guidi in OM, 11 (1931), 424–27.
188. Anwar al-Jundi, A˓lam al-qarn al-rabi˓˓ashr al-hijri (Cairo: Maktaba al-Anjilu al-Misri, 1981), 1, 381–96, esp. 381, 384.
189. Mitchell, Muslim Brothers, pp. 5, 322–23.
190. The most extensive treatment of early Egyptian Pan-Arab thought is by Israel Gershoni; see his “Arabization of Islam: The Egyptian Salafiyya and the Rise of Arabism in Pre-Revolutionary Egypt,” Asian and African Studies (AAS), 13 (1979), 25–57;
191. “The Emergence of Pan-Nationalism in Egypt: Pan-Islamism and Pan-Arabism in the 1930s,” AAS, 16 (1982), 59–94;
192. The Emergence of Pan-Arabism in Egypt (Tel-Aviv: Shiloah Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 1981).
193. Important material is contained in Charles D. Smith, Islam and the Search for Social Order in Egypt: A Biography of Muhammad Husayn Haykal (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983).
194. On the Muslim Brothers, see also Mitchell, pp. 209–94
195. and on the YMMA, see Georg Kampffmeyer, “Egypt and Western Asia,” Whither Islam, H. A. R. Gibb, ed. (London: Victor Gollancz, 1932; reprint New York: AMS Inc., 1973), pp. 103–4, 114–37.
196. For the founders, see Kampffmeyer, pp. 104–5.
197. For the political affiliations and activities of those specified here, see Jundi, A˓lam wa-ashab aqlam, pp. 212–25, 242–52, 450–57.
198. The earliest Egyptian advocates of Pan-Arabism have been identified by means of the information given in Gershoni, “Arabization of Islam,” p. 26 n. 8, p. 27 n. 9, p. 30 n. 19, p. 34 n. 35, p. 41 n. 57;
199. “Emergence of Pan-Nationalism,” pp. 61–62 at nn. 2–5, pp. 82–88;
200. Emergence of Pan-Arabism, pp. 38–41, pp. 48–59 at n. 70, p. 53 at n. 86, pp. 56–57 at n. 97, p. 58 at n. 103, p. 75 at nn. 163–64, p. 107 n. 70, p. 109 n. 86, p. 111 nn. 97, 103, p. 120 nn. 163–64.
201. Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Mudhakkirat fi al-siyasa al-misriyya, 2 vols. (Cairo: Maktaba al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1951–53), 1, 186, 190, 291, 292, 293;
202. Fatima al-Yusuf, Dhikrayat, 3d ed. (Cairo: Ruz al-Yusuf, 1976), pp. 166–78, 186, 202, 219;
203. OM, 13 (1933), 24, 398–400; 14 (1934), 300–301, 462;
204. Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals, 1919–1939 (London: Ithaca Press, 1979), p. 113 n. 299.
205. Haykal, I, 327, 348, 357;
206. Yusuf, pp. 143, 173;
207. OM, 10 (1930), 93; 15 (1935), 472; 16 (1936), 211–12, 239.
208. Ni˓mat Ahmad Fu˒ad, Adab al-Mazini, 2d ed. (Cairo: Mu˒assassa al-Khaniji, 1961), pp. 165–67.
209. Muhammad Mahmud Radwan, Safhat majhula min hayat Zaki Mubarak (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, [1974]), pp. 39–51.
210. OM, 8 (1928), 238; 10 (1930), 319; 11 (1931), 581; 12 (1932), 25; 13(1933), 275;
211. cf. Coury, “Egypt. Arab Nationalism,” pp. 252–53, 254, 264–65.
212. For somewhat oblique brief notices of the intra-Wafd conflict, see Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt's Liberal Experiment (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 134–36, 148–49, 150–55, 159–61;
213. Deeb, pp. 149 nn. 129 and 130, 173–74, 245–48;
214. Janice J. Terry, Cornerstone of Egyptian Political Power: The Wafd, 1919–1952 (London: Third World Center for Research and Publishing, 1982), pp. 224–26.
215. Gershoni, Emergence of Pan-Arabism, pp. 47, 51, 73;
216. Coury, pp. 253–54.
217. James P. Jankowski, Egypt's Young Rebels: “Young Egypt,” 1933–1952 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution, 1975), p. 19;
218. Deeb, p. 413 n. 377.
219. On Young Egypt's early ideology, see Jankowski, pp. 13, 44–78;
220. on Ottomanism and Islamism in pre-1918 Egypt, see idem, “Ottomanism and Arabism in Egypt, 1860–1914,” The Muslim World, 70 (1980), 226–59
221. and Israel Gershoni, “Between Ottomanism and Egyptianism: The Evolution of ‘National Sentiment’ in the Cairene Middle Class as Reflected in Najib Mahfuz's Bayn al-Qasrayn,” AAS, 17 (1983), 227–63.
222. Jankowski, Egypt's Young Rebels, pp. 9–10, 19–20.
223. Deeb, pp. 339–40, 377, 401 nn. 165–66, 413 nn. 377–78;
224. James Heyworthe-Dunne, Religious and Political Trends in Modern Egypt, Near and Middle East Monographs, 1 (Washington, D.C.: the author, 1950), pp. 14, 23, 24, 27;
225. Mitchell, pp. 16, 23;
226. Jankowski, Egypt's Young Rebels, pp. 19, 22–23, 32, 35–36, 39–40;
227. P. J. Vatikiotis, Nasser and His Generation (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), pp. 78–81.
228. Jacques Berque, L'Egypte: imperialisme et revolution (Paris: Gallimard, 1967), pp. 480–81;
229. Mahmud ˓Azmi, al-Ayyam al-mi'a: wizara ˓Ali Mahir Basha, 30 January-9 May 1936 (Cairo: Maktaba al-Nahda al-Misriyya, [1939]).
230. James Jankowski, “Egyptian Responses to the Palestine Problem in the Interwar Period,” IJMES, 12 (1980), 1–38;
231. idem, “The Government of Egypt and the Palestine Question, 1936–1939,” Middle Eastern Studies, 17 (1981), 427–53;
232. Coury, “Egypt. Arab Nationalism,” pp. 254–55, 462–63.
233. For examples of apparently opportunistic use of Palestine, see Coury, pp. 255–56.
234. To regard the multitudinous expressions of these thoughts by Arab nationalists, including ˓Azzam, as “the reflection and reinforcement of a kind of bourgeois self-exultation, [and] a testimony … to the rising fortunes and potentials of a ruling class,” as Coury (p. 470) does, is to ignore the basing of hopes for the future on visions of the past and the encompassing expression of anguish over the present. Coury is correct in pointing out the importance of such themes in many nationalist ideologies. Dawn has never regarded Islamic modernism or Arabism as only or even primarily the defense of an injured self-view. Of at least equal importance is the competition for office, status, and influence.
235. For Zionist use of the Semitic concept, see Neil Caplan, Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917–1925 (London and Totowa, N.J.: Frank Cass, 1978), pp. 124, 180;
236. Simha Flapan, Zionism and the Palestinians (London: Croom Helm, 1979), p. 155.
237. Smith, Haykal, pp. 56–57, 120–21, 153–54.
238. C. Ernest Dawn, “Ottoman Affinities of 20th Century Regimes in Syria,” Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, David Kushner, ed. (Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi and Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986), pp. 181–82.
239. Dawn, “Ottoman Affinities,” p. 183;
240. Khayri al-˓Umari, Yunus al-Sab˓awi: sira siyasi ˓isami (Baghdad: Wizara al-Thaqafa wa-al-Funun, 1978), pp. 48, 61, 63, 64–66;
241. Mushtaq, 1, 109 at n. 1, 157, 210–12;
242. Taha al-Hashimi, Mudhakkirat, 1919–1943, Khaldun Sati˓ al-Husri, ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Tali˓a, 1967), pp. 184, 188, 254, 255–62, 272;
243. Mahmud al-Durra, Hayat ˓iraqiyya min wara' al-bawwaba al-sawda' ([Cairo]: al-Hay'a al-Misriyya al-˓Amma li al-Kuttab, 1976), pp. 69–71, 100;
244. Munir al-Rayyis, al-Kitab al-dhahabi li al-thawrat al-wataniyya fi al-mashriq al-˓arabi, 3 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-Tali˓a and Damascus: Alif-Ba’, 1969–77), 2, 103–9, 199–202, 227–28, 292; III, 29–30, 32, 34.
245. Al-Rayyis, III, 47, 53–55, 60–61, 65–66, 71–72, 74–77, 80–81, 83–84, 100, 101, 105–6, 143, 155, 158–62;
246. al-˓Umari, pp. 67–83;
247. al-Hashimi, pp. 283–85, 289–90, 292–93, 299–300, 311, 312–13, 315, 316, 341–42, 353, 356, 358, 363–64, 369, 377, 378, 382–85, 391, 393–94, 398–403, 409;
248. Husri, 2, 316;
249. Mushtaq, 1, 401 n. 2;
250. Zaki al-Arsuzi, al- Mu'allifat al-Kamila (Damascus: Matabi˓ al-Idarah al-Siyasiyah li al-Jaysh wa-al-Quwat al-Musallahah, 1972), 1, 17;
251. Jankowski, Egypt's Young Rebels, p. 84;
252. Gershoni, Emergence of Pan-Arabism, pp. 45, 75–76.
253. Jankowski, Egypt's Young Rebels, p. 121;
254. Vatikiotis, pp. 67, 74.
255. Vatikiotis, pp. 85–87, 93–94.
256. For a model thorough and systematic examination of Ba˓thist and Nasserist ideology, see Olivier Carre, La legitimation islamique des socialismes arabes: analyse conceptuelle combinatoire de manuels scholaires egyptiens, syriens et irakiens (Paris: Presses de la Foundation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1979);
257. see also by the same author, Enseignement islamique et ideal socialiste: analyse conceptuelle des manuels d'instruction musulmane en Egypte (Beirut: Dar al-Mashriq-Librairie Orientate, 1974)
258. and “L'Islam politique dans l'Orient arabe,” Futuribles, 18 (Nov.–Dec. 1978), 747–63.