Are the Elements Elementary? Nineteenth-Century Chemical and Spectroscopical Answers

Physics in Perspective

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 360-383

  Leone, Matteo ^a   Robotti, Nadia ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BARI   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Chemical fractionation; Dmitry Mendeleev; Enhanced lines; Meta elements; Norman Lockyer; Primary matter; Proto elements; Protyle; Prout's hypothesis; Spectroscopy; William Crookes; William Prout

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346334381     PISSN: 14226944     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00016-003-0176-9     Document Type: Review

References (93)

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2. As an example of this ontological position see M.M. Pattison Muir, "Are the 'Elements' Elementary?" Nature 88 (October 3, 1878), 592-593; (October 10, 1878), 625-627.
3. As an example of this ontological position see M.M. Pattison Muir, "Are the 'Elements' Elementary?" Nature 88 (October 3, 1878), 592-593; (October 10, 1878), 625-627.
4. Thomson, "Cathode Rays" (ref. 1), p. 312.
5. W. Prout, "Correction of a Mistake in the Essay on the Relation between the Specific Gravities of Bodies," Annals of Philosophy 7 (1816), 111-113.
6. H. Davy, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy Bart, Vol. 4 (London: Smith Elder, 1839-1840), pp. 42, 132. T. Thomson, System of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: J. Brown, 1802), p. 386. J. Miers, "On the Composition of Azote," Annals of Philosophy 3 (1814), 364-372; 4 (1814), 180, 260.
7. H. Davy, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy Bart, Vol. 4 (London: Smith Elder, 1839-1840), pp. 42, 132. T. Thomson, System of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: J. Brown, 1802), p. 386. J. Miers, "On the Composition of Azote," Annals of Philosophy 3 (1814), 364-372; 4 (1814), 180, 260.
8. H. Davy, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy Bart, Vol. 4 (London: Smith Elder, 1839-1840), pp. 42, 132. T. Thomson, System of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: J. Brown, 1802), p. 386. J. Miers, "On the Composition of Azote," Annals of Philosophy 3 (1814), 364-372; 4 (1814), 180, 260.
9. H. Davy, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy Bart, Vol. 4 (London: Smith Elder, 1839-1840), pp. 42, 132. T. Thomson, System of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: J. Brown, 1802), p. 386. J. Miers, "On the Composition of Azote," Annals of Philosophy 3 (1814), 364-372; 4 (1814), 180, 260.
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21. J.C.G. Marignac, "Analyses diverses destinées à la vérification de quelques équivalents chimiques," Bibliothèque Universelle (Archives) 46 (1843), 350-377. T.J. Pelouze, "Mémoire sur les équivalents de plusieurs corps simples," Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences 20 (1845), 1047-1055. E.J. Maumené, "Sur les équivalents chimiques," Annales de Chimie 18 (1846), 41-79.
22. J.C.G. Marignac, "Analyses diverses destinées à la vérification de quelques équivalents chimiques," Bibliothèque Universelle (Archives) 46 (1843), 350-377. T.J. Pelouze, "Mémoire sur les équivalents de plusieurs corps simples," Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences 20 (1845), 1047-1055. E.J. Maumené, "Sur les équivalents chimiques," Annales de Chimie 18 (1846), 41-79.
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24. J.B. Dumas, "Mémoire sur les équivalents des corps simple," Annales de Chimie 55 (1859), 129-210. J.C.G. Marignac, "Commentary on Stas' Researches on the Mutual Relation of Atomic Weights," Bibliothèque Universelle (Archives) 9 (1860), 97-107.
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26. Pattison Muir, "Are the 'Elements' Elementary?" (ref. 2), p. 592.
27. Marignac, "Commentary on Stas' Researches" (ref. 16); emphasis added.
28. Mallet, "Atomic Weight of Aluminum" (ref. 13), p. 1033.
29. W. Crookes, "On the Nature and Origin of the so-called Elements," Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science (1886), 558-576; on 562. Presidential Address to the Chemistry Section delivered on September 2, 1886.
30. Marignac, "Commentary on Stas' Researches" (ref. 16).
31. D. Mendeleev, "Die periodische Gesetzmässigkeit der chemischen Elemente," Annalen der Physik Supplementband 8 (1871), 131-229; the quotations in the text are from the English translation, "The Periodic Law of Chemical Elements," Chemical News 40-41 (1879-1880).
32. D. Mendeleev, "Die periodische Gesetzmässigkeit der chemischen Elemente," Annalen der Physik Supplementband 8 (1871), 131-229; the quotations in the text are from the English translation, "The Periodic Law of Chemical Elements," Chemical News 40-41 (1879-1880).
33. Chem. News 41 (1880), p. 93.
34. F. Calascibetta, "L'evoluzione delle idee di D. Mendeleev rispetto all'ipotesi di Prout (1869-1889)," Atti del IV Convegno Nazionale di Storia e Fondamenti della Chimica (Venezia: Accademia Nazionale delle Scienze detta dei XL, 7-9 novembre 1991), pp. 301-312.
35. L. Cerruti, "Lezioni dalla storia: le teorie come ostacoli epistemologici," Atti del II Seminario di Chimica Inorganica e Metallorganica (Milano: Clued, 1986), pp. 197-206.
36. D. Mendeleev, "The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements [Faraday Lecture]," Journal of the Chemical Society 55 (1889), 634-656; on 644.
37. Ibid., pp. 644-645; emphasis added.
38. Ibid., p. 645.
39. Ibid., p. 643.
40. Galileo Galilei, Le opere di Galileo Galilei, Vol. 7. Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi (Firenze: G. Barbèra, 1890-1909), pp. 355-356.
41. A. Mitscherlich, "Beiträge zur Spectralanalyse," Annalen der Physik 116 (1862), 499-507. H.E. Roscoe and R.B. Clifton, "On the Effect of Increased Temperature upon the Nature of the Light Emitted by the Vapour of certain Metals or Metallic Compounds," Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 2 (1862), 227-230.
42. A. Mitscherlich, "Beiträge zur Spectralanalyse," Annalen der Physik 116 (1862), 499-507. H.E. Roscoe and R.B. Clifton, "On the Effect of Increased Temperature upon the Nature of the Light Emitted by the Vapour of certain Metals or Metallic Compounds," Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 2 (1862), 227-230.
43. N. Lockyer, "Researches in Spectrum Analysis in Connection with the Spectrum of the Sun. No. III," Phil. Trans. 164 (1874), 479-494; on 492.
44. N. Lockyer, Chemistry of the Sun (London: Macmillan, 1887).
45. A.J. Meadows, Science and Controversy: A Biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970), p. 147.
46. Brock, From Protyle to Proton (ref. 8), p. 184.
47. I b i d.
48. N. Lockyer, "Researches in Spectrum Analysis in connexion with the Spectrum of the Sun. No. VII," Proc. Roy. Soc. 28 (1878), 157-180; on 157.
49. N. Lockyer, "On the Necessity for a New Departure in Spectrum Analysis," Nature 21 (November 6, 1879), 5-8; on 6.
50. G.D. Liveing and J. Dewar, "On the Identity of Spectral Lines of Different Elements," Proc. Roy. Soc. 32 (1881), 225-230.
51. G.D. Liveing and J. Dewar, "On the Spectra of Magnesium and Lithium," Proc. Roy. Soc. 30 (1880), 93-99; "Investigations on the Spectrum of Magnesium. No. 1," ibid. 32 (1881), 189-203.
52. G.D. Liveing and J. Dewar, "On the Spectra of Magnesium and Lithium," Proc. Roy. Soc. 30 (1880), 93-99; "Investigations on the Spectrum of Magnesium. No. 1," ibid. 32 (1881), 189-203.
53. W.N. Hartley, "On Homologous Spectra," J. Chem. Soc. 43 (1883), 390-400.
54. N. Lockyer, "On the Iron Lines Present in the Hottest Stars. Preliminary Note," Proc. Roy. Soc. 60 (1897), 475-476.
55. N. Lockyer, "On the Chemistry of the Hottest Stars," Proc. Roy. Soc. 61 (1897), 148-209.
56. N. Lockyer, Captain Chisholm-Batten, and A. Pedler, "Total Eclipse of the Sun, January 22, 1898. Observations at Viziadrug." Phil. Trans. 197 (1901), 151-208; J. Evershed, "Wavelength Determinations and General Results Obtained from a Detailed Examination of Spectra Photographed at the Solar Eclipse of January 22, 1898," Proc. Roy. Soc. 68 (1901), 6-9.
57. N. Lockyer, Captain Chisholm-Batten, and A. Pedler, "Total Eclipse of the Sun, January 22, 1898. Observations at Viziadrug." Phil. Trans. 197 (1901), 151-208; J. Evershed, "Wavelength Determinations and General Results Obtained from a Detailed Examination of Spectra Photographed at the Solar Eclipse of January 22, 1898," Proc. Roy. Soc. 68 (1901), 6-9.
58. Lockyer, "Chemistry of the Hottest Stars" (ref. 44).
59. N. Lockyer, "On the Order of Appearance of Chemical Substances at Different Stellar Temperatures," Proc. Roy. Soc. 64 (1899), 396-401.
60. Meadows, Science and Controversy (ref. 35), pp. 168-169.
61. N. Lockyer, Inorganic Evolution (London: MacMillan, 1900), p. 179.
62. W. Crookes to N. Lockyer, February 1, 1897. Courtesy of Professor G.A. Wilkins.
63. W. Crookes, "On Radiant Matter Spectroscopy: A New Method of Spectrum Analysis," Proc. Roy. Soc. 35 (1883), 262-271.
64. Crookes, "Nature and Origin of the so-called Elements" (ref. 21), pp. 569-570.
65. W. Crookes, "On the Method of Chemical Fractionation," Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science (1886), 583-586; on 584.
66. W. Crookes, "On the Fractionation of Yttria," Report B.A.A.S. (1886), 586-590; on 588.
67. W. Crookes, "Genesis of the Elements," Chem. News 55 (1887), 83-88, 95-99; on 86. Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution on February 18, 1887.
68. G. Krüss and L.F. Nilson, "Studien über die Componenten der Absorptionspectra erzeugenden seltenen Erden," Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 20 (1887), 2134; translated into English as "Components of the Rare Earths giving Absorption-spectra," Chem. News 56 (1887), 172; emphasis added.
69. G. Krüss and L.F. Nilson, "Studien über die Componenten der Absorptionspectra erzeugenden seltenen Erden," Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 20 (1887), 2134; translated into English as "Components of the Rare Earths giving Absorption-spectra," Chem. News 56 (1887), 172; emphasis added.
70. H.E. Armstrong, "Elements and Meta-elements," Nature 38 (April 5, 1888), 540-541.
71. Crookes, "Genesis of the Elements" (ref. 55), p. 87; P. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, "Sur un nouveau genre de spectre métalliques," Comptes rendus 100 (1885), 1437-1440.
72. Crookes, "Genesis of the Elements" (ref. 55), p. 87; P. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, "Sur un nouveau genre de spectre métalliques," Comptes rendus 100 (1885), 1437-1440.
73. W. Crookes, "Eléments and Metaelements," J. Chem. Soc. 53 (1888), 487-504; on 491.
74. Crookes, "Nature and Origin of the so-called Elements" (ref. 21), p. 571.
75. N. Robotti, I primi modelli dell'atomo (Torino: Loescher, 1978), p. 57.
76. W. Crookes, "Electricity in Transitu: From Plenum To Vacuum," Chem. News 63 (1891), 112-114.
77. Ibid., p.112.
78. Ibid., p. 114; emphasis added.
79. Thomson, "Cathode Rays" (ref. 1), 312; see also N. Robotti, "The Discovery of the Electron 1," European Journal of Physics 17 (1997), 133-138; M. Leone and N. Robotti, "Stellar, Solar and Laboratory Spectra: The History of Lockyer's Proto-elements," Annals of Science 57 (2000), 241-266.
80. Thomson, "Cathode Rays" (ref. 1), 312; see also N. Robotti, "The Discovery of the Electron 1," European Journal of Physics 17 (1997), 133-138; M. Leone and N. Robotti, "Stellar, Solar and Laboratory Spectra: The History of Lockyer's Proto-elements," Annals of Science 57 (2000), 241-266.
81. Thomson, "Cathode Rays" (ref. 1), 312; see also N. Robotti, "The Discovery of the Electron 1," European Journal of Physics 17 (1997), 133-138; M. Leone and N. Robotti, "Stellar, Solar and Laboratory Spectra: The History of Lockyer's Proto-elements," Annals of Science 57 (2000), 241-266.
82. Mendeleev, "Periodic Law" (ref. 27), p. 643.
83. R.K. DeKosky, "Spectroscopy and the elements in the late 19th century. The work of Sir William Crookes," Brit. J. Hist. Sci. 6 (1973), 400-423.
84. G. Urbain, "Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium, Neoytterbium, and Lutecium," Chem. News 100 (1909), 73-75.
85. J.R. Rydberg, "Recherches sur la constitution des spectres d'émission des éléments chimiques," Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 23 (1889); translated into English by J.B. Sykes in W.R. Hindmarsh, Atomic Spectra (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), 108-116, "On the structure of the line-spectra of the chemical elements," Phil. Mag. 29 (1890), 331-337; "The new series in the spectrum of hydrogen," Astrophysical Journal 6 (1897), 233-238.
86. J.R. Rydberg, "Recherches sur la constitution des spectres d'émission des éléments chimiques," Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 23 (1889); translated into English by J.B. Sykes in W.R. Hindmarsh, Atomic Spectra (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), 108-116, "On the structure of the line-spectra of the chemical elements," Phil. Mag. 29 (1890), 331-337; "The new series in the spectrum of hydrogen," Astrophysical Journal 6 (1897), 233-238.
87. J.R. Rydberg, "Recherches sur la constitution des spectres d'émission des éléments chimiques," Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 23 (1889); translated into English by J.B. Sykes in W.R. Hindmarsh, Atomic Spectra (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), 108-116, "On the structure of the line-spectra of the chemical elements," Phil. Mag. 29 (1890), 331-337; "The new series in the spectrum of hydrogen," Astrophysical Journal 6 (1897), 233-238.
88. J.R. Rydberg, "Recherches sur la constitution des spectres d'émission des éléments chimiques," Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar 23 (1889); translated into English by J.B. Sykes in W.R. Hindmarsh, Atomic Spectra (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), 108-116, "On the structure of the line-spectra of the chemical elements," Phil. Mag. 29 (1890), 331-337; "The new series in the spectrum of hydrogen," Astrophysical Journal 6 (1897), 233-238.
89. E.C. Pickering, "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable stars in Crux and Cygnus," Astrophys. J. 4 (1896), 369-370. A. Fowler, "Observations of the principal and other series of lines in the spectrum of hydrogen," Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices 73 (1912), 62-71. On this subject see N. Robotti, "The spectrum of ζ Puppis and the historical evolution of empirical data," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 14 (1983), 123-145.
90. E.C. Pickering, "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable stars in Crux and Cygnus," Astrophys. J. 4 (1896), 369-370. A. Fowler, "Observations of the principal and other series of lines in the spectrum of hydrogen," Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices 73 (1912), 62-71. On this subject see N. Robotti, "The spectrum of ζ Puppis and the historical evolution of empirical data," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 14 (1983), 123-145.
91. E.C. Pickering, "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable stars in Crux and Cygnus," Astrophys. J. 4 (1896), 369-370. A. Fowler, "Observations of the principal and other series of lines in the spectrum of hydrogen," Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices 73 (1912), 62-71. On this subject see N. Robotti, "The spectrum of ζ Puppis and the historical evolution of empirical data," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 14 (1983), 123-145.
92. N. Bohr, "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules," Phil. Mag. 26 (1913), 1-25, 476-502, 857-875.
93. A. Fowler, "Series Lines in Spark Spectrum [Bakerian Lecture], " Phil. Trans. 214 (1914), 225-266.