Antiminority Riots in Unified Germany: Cultural Conflicts and Mischanneled Political Participation

Comparative Politics

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 147-167

  Karapin, Roger ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0345856541     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4146935     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
2. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
3. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
4. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
5. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
6. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
7. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
8. For ideological explanations, see Panikos Panayi, "Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990-93," Contemporary European History, 3 (1994), 280-85; Gert Krell, Hans Nicklas, and Anne Ostermann, "Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany," Journal of Peace Research, 33 (1996), 153-70; Asgharali Engineer, Communalism and Communal Violence in India (Delhi: Ajanta, 1989), pp. 26-36. For explanations based on inequality and competition, see Wilhelm Heitmeyer, "Das Desintegrationstheorem," in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, ed., Das Gewalt-Dilemma (Frankfurt a.M: Suhrkamp, 1994), pp. 45-46; Susan Olzak, The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992); Subho Basu, "Strikes and 'Communal' Riots in Calcutta in the 1890s," Modern Asian Studies, 32 (1998), 949-83. For political-entrepreneurial explanations, see Ruud Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise of Racist and Extreme-Right Violence in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research, 30 (December 1996), 200-6; Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 224-30, 260-65.
9. For a similar argument, see Rogers Brubaker and David Laitin, "Ethnic and Nationalist Violence," Annual Review of Sociology, 24 (1998), 423-58.
10. Antiminority riots include events where the subordinate group fights back to a greater or lesser degree but exclude those where only the subordinate group engages in sustained attacks. For more specifics on size, see note 7.
11. Frank Esser and Hans Brosius, "Television as Arsonist?" European Journal of Communication, 11 (1996), 235-60; Ruud Koopmans, "Asyl: Die Karriere eines politischen Konflikts," in Wolfgang van den Daele and Friedhelm Neidhardt, eds., Kommunikation und Entscheidung (Berlin: Sigma, 1996), 167-92.
12. Frank Esser and Hans Brosius, "Television as Arsonist?" European Journal of Communication, 11 (1996), 235-60; Ruud Koopmans, "Asyl: Die Karriere eines politischen Konflikts," in Wolfgang van den Daele and Friedhelm Neidhardt, eds., Kommunikation und Entscheidung (Berlin: Sigma, 1996), 167-92.
13. Ashutosh Varshney, "Postmodernism, Civic Engagement, and Ethnic Conflict," Comparative Politics, 30 (October 1997), 2.
14. Author's estimate from Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," p. 190; and Jens Alber, "Zur Erklärung fremdenfeindlicher Gewalt in Deutschland," in Ekkehard Mochmann and Uta Gerhardt, eds., Gewalt in Deutschland (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1995), pp. 42-43.
15. Author's estimate from Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," p. 190; and Jens Alber, "Zur Erklärung fremdenfeindlicher Gewalt in Deutschland," in Ekkehard Mochmann and Uta Gerhardt, eds., Gewalt in Deutschland (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1995), pp. 42-43.
16. Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, ed., Neofaschistische Gewalt und Straftaten in der BRD, 1985-1995 (Bonn: Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, 1995). define major riots as involving at least 500 participants, or at least one hundred on two consecutive days; they were identified from analyses of die tageszeitung, cd-rom edition (1986-1997). See Roger Karapin, "Major Anti-Minority Riots and National Legislative Campaigns against Immigrants in Britain and Germany," in Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, eds., Challenging the Politics of Ethnic Relations in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 312-47.
17. Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, ed., Neofaschistische Gewalt und Straftaten in der BRD, 1985-1995 (Bonn: Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, 1995). I define major riots as involving at least 500 participants, or at least one hundred on two consecutive days; they were identified from analyses of die tageszeitung, cd-rom edition (1986-1997). See Roger Karapin, "Major Anti-Minority Riots and National Legislative Campaigns against Immigrants in Britain and Germany," in Ruud Koopmans and Paul Statham, eds., Challenging the Politics of Ethnic Relations in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 312-47.
18. Manfred Kuechler, "Germans and 'Others' ?," German Politics, 3 (April 1994), 64; Alber, pp. 70-74.
19. Manfred Kuechler, "Germans and 'Others' ?," German Politics, 3 (April 1994), 64; Alber, pp. 70-74.
20. Helmut Willems et al., Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt (Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 1993), pp. 40-41, 44, 50-51.
21. For example, see Olzak, pp. 24-47; Albon Man, "Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of 1863," Journal of Negro History, 36 (October 1951); Surangan Das, Communal Riots in Bengal, 1905-1947 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991).
22. For example, see Olzak, pp. 24-47; Albon Man, "Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of 1863," Journal of Negro History, 36 (October 1951); Surangan Das, Communal Riots in Bengal, 1905-1947 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991).
23. For example, see Olzak, pp. 24-47; Albon Man, "Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of 1863," Journal of Negro History, 36 (October 1951); Surangan Das, Communal Riots in Bengal, 1905-1947 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991).
24. Robert E. Park, Race and Culture (Glencoe: Free Press, 1950), pp. 236-39.
25. Christopher Husbands, "The Dynamics of Racial Exclusion and Expulsion," European Journal of Political Research, 16 (1988), 706; Christopher Husbands, "Racial Attacks," in Tony Kushner and Kenneth Lunn, eds., Traditions of Intolerance (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), p. 96.
26. Christopher Husbands, "The Dynamics of Racial Exclusion and Expulsion," European Journal of Political Research, 16 (1988), 706; Christopher Husbands, "Racial Attacks," in Tony Kushner and Kenneth Lunn, eds., Traditions of Intolerance (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), p. 96.
27. Allen Grimshaw, "Three Cases of Racial Violence in the United States," in Allen Grimshaw, ed., Racial Violence in the United States (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), p. 105.
28. Clark McPhail, The Myth of the Madding Crowd (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991).
29. William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest, 2nd ed. (Homewood: Dorsey Press, 1990), 14-18.
30. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
31. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
32. Tilly, p. 100.
33. For antiminority riots, see Morris Janowitz, "Patterns of Collective Racial Violence," in Hugh Graham and Ted Gurr, eds., Violence in America (New York: Praeger, 1969), pp. 415-16; Allen Grimshaw, "Actions of Police and Military in American Race Riots," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 269-87.
34. For antiminority riots, see Morris Janowitz, "Patterns of Collective Racial Violence," in Hugh Graham and Ted Gurr, eds., Violence in America (New York: Praeger, 1969), pp. 415-16; Allen Grimshaw, "Actions of Police and Military in American Race Riots," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 269-87.
35. Ralph Turner, "Race Riots Past and Present," Symbolic Interaction, 17 (1994), 313; Neil Smelser, The Theory of Collective Behavior (New York: Free Press, 1963), pp. 236-40; Helmut Willems, "Gewalt gegen Fremde," in Hans Peter Nolting et al., Aggression und Gewalt (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1993), p. 173.
36. Ralph Turner, "Race Riots Past and Present," Symbolic Interaction, 17 (1994), 313; Neil Smelser, The Theory of Collective Behavior (New York: Free Press, 1963), pp. 236-40; Helmut Willems, "Gewalt gegen Fremde," in Hans Peter Nolting et al., Aggression und Gewalt (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1993), p. 173.
37. Ralph Turner, "Race Riots Past and Present," Symbolic Interaction, 17 (1994), 313; Neil Smelser, The Theory of Collective Behavior (New York: Free Press, 1963), pp. 236-40; Helmut Willems, "Gewalt gegen Fremde," in Hans Peter Nolting et al., Aggression und Gewalt (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1993), p. 173.
38. Tilly, p. 133.
39. For example, Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," pp. 202-4; Graeme Atkinson, "Germany," in Tore Björgo and Rob Witte, eds., Racist Violence in Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 160-61; Karl-Otto Richter and Bernhard Schmidtbauer, "Zur Akzeptanz von Asylbewerbern in Rostock-Stadt," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 1993 (Nos. 2-3), 51-52; Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 225-26.
40. For example, Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," pp. 202-4; Graeme Atkinson, "Germany," in Tore Björgo and Rob Witte, eds., Racist Violence in Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 160-61; Karl-Otto Richter and Bernhard Schmidtbauer, "Zur Akzeptanz von Asylbewerbern in Rostock-Stadt," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 1993 (Nos. 2-3), 51-52; Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 225-26.
41. For example, Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," pp. 202-4; Graeme Atkinson, "Germany," in Tore Björgo and Rob Witte, eds., Racist Violence in Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 160-61; Karl-Otto Richter and Bernhard Schmidtbauer, "Zur Akzeptanz von Asylbewerbern in Rostock-Stadt," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 1993 (Nos. 2-3), 51-52; Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 225-26.
42. For example, Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," pp. 202-4; Graeme Atkinson, "Germany," in Tore Björgo and Rob Witte, eds., Racist Violence in Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 160-61; Karl-Otto Richter and Bernhard Schmidtbauer, "Zur Akzeptanz von Asylbewerbern in Rostock-Stadt," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 1993 (Nos. 2-3), 51-52; Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 225-26.
43. See, for example, Varshney, p. 12; Paul Brass, "Introduction," in Paul Brass, ed., Riots and Pogroms (New York: New York University Press, 1996), pp. 12-13.
44. See, for example, Varshney, p. 12; Paul Brass, "Introduction," in Paul Brass, ed., Riots and Pogroms (New York: New York University Press, 1996), pp. 12-13.
45. Rob Witte, Racist Violence and the State (New York: Longman, 1996), pp. 5-6; Roger Karapin, "The Politics of Immigration Control in Britain and Germany," Comparative Politics, 31 (July 1999), 423-44.
46. Rob Witte, Racist Violence and the State (New York: Longman, 1996), pp. 5-6; Roger Karapin, "The Politics of Immigration Control in Britain and Germany," Comparative Politics, 31 (July 1999), 423-44.
47. In Germany police are under the authority of state governments and are often responsive to elected county and city representatives.
48. Turner, pp. 315-16.
49. John D. McCarthy and Mayer Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements," American Journal of Sociology, 82 (1977), 1212-41.
50. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 53-65.
51. Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 191-93; Klaus Farin and Eberhard Seidel-Pielen, Skinheads (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1993).
52. Willems, Fremdenfeindliche Gewalt, pp. 191-93; Klaus Farin and Eberhard Seidel-Pielen, Skinheads (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1993).
53. Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian, Collective Behavior (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1957), p. 110; Robert Weinberg, "Anti-Jewish Violence and Revolution in Late Imperial Russia," in Brass, ed., Riots and Pogroms, p. 61; Edward Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country (London: I. B. Taurus, 1988), pp. 101-2, 106-18.
54. Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian, Collective Behavior (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1957), p. 110; Robert Weinberg, "Anti-Jewish Violence and Revolution in Late Imperial Russia," in Brass, ed., Riots and Pogroms, p. 61; Edward Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country (London: I. B. Taurus, 1988), pp. 101-2, 106-18.
55. Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian, Collective Behavior (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1957), p. 110; Robert Weinberg, "Anti-Jewish Violence and Revolution in Late Imperial Russia," in Brass, ed., Riots and Pogroms, p. 61; Edward Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country (London: I. B. Taurus, 1988), pp. 101-2, 106-18.
56. Hence I will use the terms "foreigner" and "ethnic minority" as synonyms for "immigrants" when discussing German cases.
57. Data from Statistisches Bundesamt, Federal Ministry of the Interior, and Statistisches Jahrbuch Deutscher Gemeinden (1992), p. 492.
58. Daniel Kanstroom, "Wer sind wir wieder? Laws of Asylum, Immigration, and Citizenship in the Struggle for the Soul of the New Germany," Yale Journal of International Law, 18 (Winter 1993), 155-211.
59. Bundesministerium des Innern, Verfassungsschutzbericht 1991 (Bonn: Bundesministenum des Innern, 1992), p. 76; Verfassungsschutzbericht 1993 (Bonn: Bundesministerium des Innern, 1994), pp. 79-80; author's calculations.
60. Bundesministerium des Innern, Verfassungsschutzbericht 1991 (Bonn: Bundesministenum des Innern, 1992), p. 76; Verfassungsschutzbericht 1993 (Bonn: Bundesministerium des Innern, 1994), pp. 79-80; author's calculations.
61. Karapin, "Major Anti-Minority Riots," p. 321.
62. Bundesministerium des Innern, Verfassungsschutzbericht 1991, p. 76.
63. From my analysis of attacks during January-December 1991 and August-November 1992 reported in die tageszeitung and Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, ed., Über den schonenden Umgang der Bundesregierung mit dem Rechtsextremismus, Teil 4 (Bonn: Partei des demokratischen Sozialismus, 1993).
64. Hoyerswerda: county population, 100, 900; largest city, 62,400 residents; foreign population, 799 (January 1992), or 0.8 percent of total; 230 asylum seekers in 1991; official unemployment, 8.1 percent (September 1991); unofficial unemployment, including those on short hours, 23.4 percent (summer 1991). Riesa: county population, 89,000; largest city, 44,400; foreign population, 892 or 1.0 percent; 260 asylum seekers; official unemployment, 8.3 percent; unofficial unemployment, 23.0 percent (same dates as for Hoyerswerda). Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, ed., Laufende Raumbeobachtung: Aktuelle Daten zur Entwicklung der Städte, Kreise, und Gemeinden, 1992-93 (Bonn: Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, 1995); foreign population data provided by Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen; unemployment rates are author's calculations from Sächsische Zeitung, Hoyerswerda edition, Aug. 8, Sept. 7, 1991; Wochenblatt, Oct. 11, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung, Riesa edition, July 9, Oct. 10, 1991; asylum seekers from Sächsische Zeitung.
65. Hoyerswerda: county population, 100, 900; largest city, 62,400 residents; foreign population, 799 (January 1992), or 0.8 percent of total; 230 asylum seekers in 1991; official unemployment, 8.1 percent (September 1991); unofficial unemployment, including those on short hours, 23.4 percent (summer 1991). Riesa: county population, 89,000; largest city, 44,400; foreign population, 892 or 1.0 percent; 260 asylum seekers; official unemployment, 8.3 percent; unofficial unemployment, 23.0 percent (same dates as for Hoyerswerda). Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, ed., Laufende Raumbeobachtung: Aktuelle Daten zur Entwicklung der Städte, Kreise, und Gemeinden, 1992-93 (Bonn: Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, 1995); foreign population data provided by Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen; unemployment rates are author's calculations from Sächsische Zeitung, Hoyerswerda edition, Aug. 8, Sept. 7, 1991; Wochenblatt, Oct. 11, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung, Riesa edition, July 9, Oct. 10, 1991; asylum seekers from Sächsische Zeitung.
66. Hoyerswerda: county population, 100, 900; largest city, 62,400 residents; foreign population, 799 (January 1992), or 0.8 percent of total; 230 asylum seekers in 1991; official unemployment, 8.1 percent (September 1991); unofficial unemployment, including those on short hours, 23.4 percent (summer 1991). Riesa: county population, 89,000; largest city, 44,400; foreign population, 892 or 1.0 percent; 260 asylum seekers; official unemployment, 8.3 percent; unofficial unemployment, 23.0 percent (same dates as for Hoyerswerda). Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, ed., Laufende Raumbeobachtung: Aktuelle Daten zur Entwicklung der Städte, Kreise, und Gemeinden, 1992-93 (Bonn: Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, 1995); foreign population data provided by Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen; unemployment rates are author's calculations from Sächsische Zeitung, Hoyerswerda edition, Aug. 8, Sept. 7, 1991; Wochenblatt, Oct. 11, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung, Riesa edition, July 9, Oct. 10, 1991; asylum seekers from Sächsische Zeitung.
67. Hoyerswerda: county population, 100, 900; largest city, 62,400 residents; foreign population, 799 (January 1992), or 0.8 percent of total; 230 asylum seekers in 1991; official unemployment, 8.1 percent (September 1991); unofficial unemployment, including those on short hours, 23.4 percent (summer 1991). Riesa: county population, 89,000; largest city, 44,400; foreign population, 892 or 1.0 percent; 260 asylum seekers; official unemployment, 8.3 percent; unofficial unemployment, 23.0 percent (same dates as for Hoyerswerda). Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, ed., Laufende Raumbeobachtung: Aktuelle Daten zur Entwicklung der Städte, Kreise, und Gemeinden, 1992-93 (Bonn: Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, 1995); foreign population data provided by Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen; unemployment rates are author's calculations from Sächsische Zeitung, Hoyerswerda edition, Aug. 8, Sept. 7, 1991; Wochenblatt, Oct. 11, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung, Riesa edition, July 9, Oct. 10, 1991; asylum seekers from Sächsische Zeitung.
68. Hoyerswerda: county population, 100, 900; largest city, 62,400 residents; foreign population, 799 (January 1992), or 0.8 percent of total; 230 asylum seekers in 1991; official unemployment, 8.1 percent (September 1991); unofficial unemployment, including those on short hours, 23.4 percent (summer 1991). Riesa: county population, 89,000; largest city, 44,400; foreign population, 892 or 1.0 percent; 260 asylum seekers; official unemployment, 8.3 percent; unofficial unemployment, 23.0 percent (same dates as for Hoyerswerda). Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, ed., Laufende Raumbeobachtung: Aktuelle Daten zur Entwicklung der Städte, Kreise, und Gemeinden, 1992-93 (Bonn: Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumordnung, 1995); foreign population data provided by Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen; unemployment rates are author's calculations from Sächsische Zeitung, Hoyerswerda edition, Aug. 8, Sept. 7, 1991; Wochenblatt, Oct. 11, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung, Riesa edition, July 9, Oct. 10, 1991; asylum seekers from Sächsische Zeitung.
69. Data from Statistisches Landesamt Sachsen; the Zentrale Ausländerbehörde in Saxony; Staatsministerium des Innern, Saxony, Verfassungsschutzbericht 1993 (Dresden: Staatsministerium des Innern, Saxony), p. 21; and a very helpful interview with Bernd Wagner, Berlin, August 14, 1997. Low violence communities were defined as those lacking reported attacks (see note 37) against foreigners' housing that involved attempted arson, storming or besieging of the building, injuries, or the flight or evacuation of the residents.
70. Paul Hockenos, Free to Hate (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 24-25.
71. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Feb. 21, 1991; other data supplied by Statistisches Landesamt Sachsen. Resettlers were not housed in Hoyerswerda until 1993.
72. All accounts of the 1991 Hoyerswerda riots are from Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Lausitzer Rundschau, Hoyerswerda edition; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenspiegel; Bild, Dresden edition; and the Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 19-27, 1991.
73. All accounts of the 1991 Hoyerswerda riots are from Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Lausitzer Rundschau, Hoyerswerda edition; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenspiegel; Bild, Dresden edition; and the Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 19-27, 1991.
74. All accounts of the 1991 Hoyerswerda riots are from Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Lausitzer Rundschau, Hoyerswerda edition; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenspiegel; Bild, Dresden edition; and the Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 19-27, 1991.
75. All accounts of the 1991 Hoyerswerda riots are from Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Lausitzer Rundschau, Hoyerswerda edition; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenspiegel; Bild, Dresden edition; and the Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 19-27, 1991.
76. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Sept. 24, 1991.
77. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Sept. 14, 1992.
78. Irwin Collier, "German Economic Integration," in Michael Huelshoff, Andrei Markovits, and Simon Reich, eds., From Bundesrepublik to Deutschland (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), p. 97; Thomas Baylis, "Transforming the East German Economy," in ibid., pp. 83-89; author's calculation.
79. Irwin Collier, "German Economic Integration," in Michael Huelshoff, Andrei Markovits, and Simon Reich, eds., From Bundesrepublik to Deutschland (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), p. 97; Thomas Baylis, "Transforming the East German Economy," in ibid., pp. 83-89; author's calculation.
80. Similar to my findings, a county-level cross-sectional multivariate analysis showed no relation between unemployment and attacks on foreigners. See Alan Krueger and Jörn-Steffen Pischke, "A Statistical Analysis of Crime against Foreigners in Unified Germany," Journal of Human Resources, 32 (Winter 1997), 182-209.
81. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Sept. 7-8, 1991; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Aug. 16, Sept. 13, Oct. 11, Dec. 13, 1991; Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, ed., Arbeitsstatistik 1992, Jahreszahlen (Nürnberg: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, 1993), p. 263.
82. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Sept. 7-8, 1991; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Aug. 16, Sept. 13, Oct. 11, Dec. 13, 1991; Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, ed., Arbeitsstatistik 1992, Jahreszahlen (Nürnberg: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, 1993), p. 263.
83. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Sept. 7-8, 1991; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Aug. 16, Sept. 13, Oct. 11, Dec. 13, 1991; Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, ed., Arbeitsstatistik 1992, Jahreszahlen (Nürnberg: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, 1993), p. 263.
84. Rainer Joedecke, "Willkommen in Hoyerswerda," Kursbuch Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, 107 (1992), 77.
85. Kanstroom, p. 197, n. 337; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, July 26, 1991.
86. Kanstroom, p. 197, n. 337; Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, July 26, 1991.
87. Foreign population share also declined in the county; data supplied by Ordnungsamt der Stadt Hoyerswerda, July 1997 (author's calculations).
88. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Apr. 10, 1991.
89. Interviews with Martin Schmidt, Hoyerswerda, July 31, August 1, 1997; Joedecke, pp. 76-77; Hockenos, p. 24.
90. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, July 26, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), July 19, Aug. 29, 1991; Lausitzer Rundschau, Aug. 29, 1991.
91. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, July 26, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), July 19, Aug. 29, 1991; Lausitzer Rundschau, Aug. 29, 1991.
92. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, July 26, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), July 19, Aug. 29, 1991; Lausitzer Rundschau, Aug. 29, 1991.
93. Patrick Ireland, "Socialism, Unification Policy, and the Rise of Racism in Eastern Germany," International Migration Review, 31 (Fall 1997), 548-49.
94. Ursula Münch Asylpolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Entwicklung und Alternativen, 2nd ed (Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 1993); Ursula Linke and Klaus Ness, "Von der GST zur ZAST," in Ralf Ludwig, Klaus Ness, and Muzaffer Perik, eds., Fluchtpunkt Deutschland (Berlin: Schüren, 1992), pp. 124-36.
95. Ursula Münch Asylpolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Entwicklung und Alternativen, 2nd ed (Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 1993); Ursula Linke and Klaus Ness, "Von der GST zur ZAST," in Ralf Ludwig, Klaus Ness, and Muzaffer Perik, eds., Fluchtpunkt Deutschland (Berlin: Schüren, 1992), pp. 124-36.
96. Ostsee Zeitung, June 18-19, 1992; Norddeutsche Neuste Nachrichten, Rostock edition, June 18, July 14, 1992.
97. Ostsee Zeitung, June 18-19, 1992; Norddeutsche Neuste Nachrichten, Rostock edition, June 18, July 14, 1992.
98. Norddeutsche Neuste Nachrichten, Aug. 19, 1992; Stefanie Würtz, "Rostock Chronologie", unpublished manuscript, 1993.
99. Norddeutsche Neuste Nachrichten, Aug. 19, 1992; Stefanie Würtz, "Rostock Chronologie", unpublished manuscript, 1993.
100. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), July 26, Dec. 18, 1991, Feb. 8, 1992; Bild, Dec. 21, 1992.
101. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), July 26, Dec. 18, 1991, Feb. 8, 1992; Bild, Dec. 21, 1992.
102. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), May 28, 1993.
103. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), passim.
104. Interview with Schmidt; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Aug. 16, 29, 1991; Lausitzer Rundschau, Aug. 29, 1991.
105. Interview with Schmidt; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Aug. 16, 29, 1991; Lausitzer Rundschau, Aug. 29, 1991.
106. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Sept. 20, 1991; Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 20, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda) Sept. 21, 23, 1991; die tageszeitung, Sept. 21, 1991; Junge Welt, Sept. 23, 1991.
107. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Sept. 20, 1991; Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 20, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda) Sept. 21, 23, 1991; die tageszeitung, Sept. 21, 1991; Junge Welt, Sept. 23, 1991.
108. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Sept. 20, 1991; Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 20, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda) Sept. 21, 23, 1991; die tageszeitung, Sept. 21, 1991; Junge Welt, Sept. 23, 1991.
109. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Sept. 20, 1991; Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 20, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda) Sept. 21, 23, 1991; die tageszeitung, Sept. 21, 1991; Junge Welt, Sept. 23, 1991.
110. Hoyerswerdaer Wochenblatt, Sept. 20, 1991; Dresdner Morgenpost, Sept. 20, 1991; Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda) Sept. 21, 23, 1991; die tageszeitung, Sept. 21, 1991; Junge Welt, Sept. 23, 1991.
111. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Oct. 5, 1990, Aug. 29, Sept. 19, 1991. More than a dozen attacks against foreigners were reported in the week prior to the riots.
112. Die tageszeitung, Sept. 23, 1991.
113. Die tageszeitung, Aug. 26, 1992.
114. Willems, "Gewalt," p. 175.
115. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), June 8, 28, Sept. 18, 21, 23, 1991.
116. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Mar. 13, 18, 26, Apr. 13, May 8, Aug. 17, Nov. 9, 1991.
117. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Apr. 13, 1991, Aug. 29, Sept. 14, 1992.
118. Landeskriminalamt Sachsen, Polizeiliche Kriminalstatistik Freistaat Sachsen 1992 (Dresden: Landeskriminalamt Sachsen), p. 31; Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Jan. 28, 1993; data provided by Polizeidirektion Bautzen.
119. Landeskriminalamt Sachsen, Polizeiliche Kriminalstatistik Freistaat Sachsen 1992 (Dresden: Landeskriminalamt Sachsen), p. 31; Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Jan. 28, 1993; data provided by Polizeidirektion Bautzen.
120. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Jan. 28, 1993.
121. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Mär. 13, 1991.
122. Eight in Riesa versus three in Hoyerswerda. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa and Hoyerswerda), passim.
123. Campaigns were measured by articles in die tageszeitung, which ranged from one to 104 per month during 1990-93, with five separate peaks of over twenty articles per month. I judged that a campaign existed prior to a riot if leading politicians were involved and at least twenty articles were published during the previous thirty days. By contrast, in the sixty days before Hoyerswerda only five articles per month were published, and in the sixty days before Rostock only eleven articles per month. For details and a graphic presentation, see Karapin, "Major Anti-Minority Riots," pp. 320, 330-37.
124. Forschungsgruppe Wahlen data (open-ended question) from Hike Hennig, "Deutschland von Rechts," Wochenschau für politische Erziehung, Sozial- und Gemeinschaftskunde, 42 (November-December 1991), 212; Dieter Roth, "Was bewegt die Wähler?," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (March 18, 1994), 6-7.
125. Forschungsgruppe Wahlen data (open-ended question) from Hike Hennig, "Deutschland von Rechts," Wochenschau für politische Erziehung, Sozial- und Gemeinschaftskunde, 42 (November-December 1991), 212; Dieter Roth, "Was bewegt die Wähler?," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (March 18, 1994), 6-7.
126. Die tageszeitung, May 7, 1990; the lull was indicated by a steady trickle of about two articles per month for the previous twelve months.
127. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), 1990-91, passim.; conversation with Helmut Willems, August 6, 1997, based on his field research.
128. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), Aug. 29, 1991.
129. Ostsee Zeitung, June 25, 1992.
130. Sächsische Zeitung (Hoyerswerda), July 6, 19, 1991.
131. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa), Jan. 23, Feb. 21, Mar. 7, 1991, Oct. 15, 1992, Feb. 13, 1993.
132. Bundesministerium des Innern, Verfassungsschutzbericht 1991, p. 91.
133. Interviews with Schmidt, Wagner, and Friedhart Vogel, Hoyerswerda, July 29, 1997; sources cited in note 42.
134. Würtz.
135. Sächsische Zeitung (Riesa and Hoyerswerda), October 1991 through December 1992.
136. For a focus on national policy failures, see Ireland, pp. 550-62.
137. Weinberg; Ian Copland, "Communalism in Princely India," Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), 813; Laszlo Kürti, "Racism, the Extreme Right, and Anti-Gypsy Sentiments in East-Central Europe," in Jean-Yves Camus, Extremism in Europe (Paris: éditions de l'aube, 1998), p. 426.
138. Weinberg; Ian Copland, "Communalism in Princely India," Modern Asian Studies, 22 (1988), 813; Laszlo Kürti, "Racism, the Extreme Right, and Anti-Gypsy Sentiments in East-Central Europe," in Jean-Yves Camus, Extremism in Europe (Paris: éditions de l'aube, 1998), p. 426.
139. Grimshaw, "Three Cases," pp. 106, 108, 110, 112; Allen Grimshaw, "Factors Contributing to Color Violence in the United States and Britain," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 258, 263; James Wickenden, Colour in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1958); Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British, rev. ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); Pilkington, esp. pp. 49-51; Witte, pp. 116-18, 122-23.
140. Grimshaw, "Three Cases," pp. 106, 108, 110, 112; Allen Grimshaw, "Factors Contributing to Color Violence in the United States and Britain," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 258, 263; James Wickenden, Colour in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1958); Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British, rev. ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); Pilkington, esp. pp. 49-51; Witte, pp. 116-18, 122-23.
141. Grimshaw, "Three Cases," pp. 106, 108, 110, 112; Allen Grimshaw, "Factors Contributing to Color Violence in the United States and Britain," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 258, 263; James Wickenden, Colour in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1958); Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British, rev. ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); Pilkington, esp. pp. 49-51; Witte, pp. 116-18, 122-23.
142. Grimshaw, "Three Cases," pp. 106, 108, 110, 112; Allen Grimshaw, "Factors Contributing to Color Violence in the United States and Britain," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 258, 263; James Wickenden, Colour in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1958); Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British, rev. ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); Pilkington, esp. pp. 49-51; Witte, pp. 116-18, 122-23.
143. Grimshaw, "Three Cases," pp. 106, 108, 110, 112; Allen Grimshaw, "Factors Contributing to Color Violence in the United States and Britain," in Grimshaw, ed., pp. 258, 263; James Wickenden, Colour in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1958); Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British, rev. ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); Pilkington, esp. pp. 49-51; Witte, pp. 116-18, 122-23.
144. Husbands, "Racial Attacks," p. 96; see also Janowitz, pp. 415-18; Panayi, pp. 275-77.
145. Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Herbert Kitschelt, The Radical Right in Western Europe (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
146. Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994); Herbert Kitschelt, The Radical Right in Western Europe (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
147. Koopmans, "Explaining the Rise," pp. 206-9.