A promising pioneer profession? Women in industrial chemistry in inter-war Britain

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 33, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 351-367

  Horrocks, Sally M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CHEMISTRY; DRUG INDUSTRY; FEMALE; FOOD INDUSTRY; HISTORY; PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE; UNITED KINGDOM;

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CHEMISTRY; DRUG INDUSTRY; FOOD INDUSTRY; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE; WOMEN, WORKING;

EID: 0345753602     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087499004057     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. R. Strachey, Careers and Opportunities for Women: A Surrey of Women's Employment and a Guide for those Seeking Work, London, 1934, 122.
2. R. Pilcher, The Profession of Chemistry, London, 3rd edn., 1935, 97.
3. 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates', Part III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 289-96.
4. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Pilcher, op. cit. (2); V. Brittain, Women's Work in Modern England, London, 1928; D. W. Hughes, Careers for our Daughters, London, 1936 and the Journal of Careers, especially 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates' Parts I and III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 88-93 and 289-96.
5. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Pilcher, op. cit. (2); V. Brittain, Women's Work in Modern England, London, 1928; D. W. Hughes, Careers for our Daughters, London, 1936 and the Journal of Careers, especially 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates' Parts I and III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 88-93 and 289-96.
6. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Pilcher, op. cit. (2); V. Brittain, Women's Work in Modern England, London, 1928; D. W. Hughes, Careers for our Daughters, London, 1936 and the Journal of Careers, especially 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates' Parts I and III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 88-93 and 289-96.
7. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Pilcher, op. cit. (2); V. Brittain, Women's Work in Modern England, London, 1928; D. W. Hughes, Careers for our Daughters, London, 1936 and the Journal of Careers, especially 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates' Parts I and III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 88-93 and 289-96.
8. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Pilcher, op. cit. (2); V. Brittain, Women's Work in Modern England, London, 1928; D. W. Hughes, Careers for our Daughters, London, 1936 and the Journal of Careers, especially 'Prospects for employment of women science graduates' Parts I and III, Journal of Careers (1938), 17, 88-93 and 289-96.
9. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
10. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
11. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
12. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
13. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
14. On 'white-blouse' work see G. Anderson (ed.), The White Blouse Revolution, Manchester, 1988; M. Savage 'Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes' in Building European Society (ed. A. Miles and D. Vincent), Manchester, 1993, 196-216 and E. Jordan, 'The lady clerks at the Prudential: the beginnings of vertical segregation by sex in clerical work in nineteenth-century Britain', Gender and History (1996), 8, 65-81, which includes a useful review of the literature. On women's work in Britain more generally see J. Lewis, Women in England, 1870-1950, Brighton, 1984; E. Roberts, Women's Work, 1840-1940, Basingstoke, 1988 and H. Bradley, Men's Work, Women's Work, Cambridge, 1989.
15. E. R. Long in Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1923, 116, quoted by Savage, op. cit. (5), 207.
16. This is stressed in Jordan, op. cit. (5).
17. The work of J. Donnelly has explored the work and career experiences of industrial chemists prior to the First World War. See his 'Industrial recruitment of chemists from English universities: a revaluation of its early importance', BJHS (1991), 24, 3-20 and 'Consultants, managers, testing slaves: changing roles for chemists in the British alkali industry, 1850-1920', Technology and Culture (1994), 35, 100-28.
18. The work of J. Donnelly has explored the work and career experiences of industrial chemists prior to the First World War. See his 'Industrial recruitment of chemists from English universities: a revaluation of its early importance', BJHS (1991), 24, 3-20 and 'Consultants, managers, testing slaves: changing roles for chemists in the British alkali industry, 1850-1920', Technology and Culture (1994), 35, 100-28.
19. Donnelly op. cit. (8), which does not specifically discuss women students, demonstrates the direct links between universities and firms which led to employment in industry. On the opportunities for British women science graduates see J. Stevenson, 'A neglected issue in the history of education and training: women students of University College London and the polytechnic at Regent Street', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Thames Valley University, 1996. M. Rayner-Canham and G. Rayner-Canham discuss the specific case of chemistry in Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century, Philadelphia, 1998. M. Sanderson, The Universities and British Industry, 1850-1970, London, 1972, 314-38 discusses the general recruitment of women graduates into industry.
20. Donnelly op. cit. (8), which does not specifically discuss women students, demonstrates the direct links between universities and firms which led to employment in industry. On the opportunities for British women science graduates see J. Stevenson, 'A neglected issue in the history of education and training: women students of University College London and the polytechnic at Regent Street', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Thames Valley University, 1996. M. Rayner-Canham and G. Rayner-Canham discuss the specific case of chemistry in Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century, Philadelphia, 1998. M. Sanderson, The Universities and British Industry, 1850-1970, London, 1972, 314-38 discusses the general recruitment of women graduates into industry.
21. Donnelly op. cit. (8), which does not specifically discuss women students, demonstrates the direct links between universities and firms which led to employment in industry. On the opportunities for British women science graduates see J. Stevenson, 'A neglected issue in the history of education and training: women students of University College London and the polytechnic at Regent Street', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Thames Valley University, 1996. M. Rayner-Canham and G. Rayner-Canham discuss the specific case of chemistry in Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century, Philadelphia, 1998. M. Sanderson, The Universities and British Industry, 1850-1970, London, 1972, 314-38 discusses the general recruitment of women graduates into industry.
22. Donnelly op. cit. (8), which does not specifically discuss women students, demonstrates the direct links between universities and firms which led to employment in industry. On the opportunities for British women science graduates see J. Stevenson, 'A neglected issue in the history of education and training: women students of University College London and the polytechnic at Regent Street', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Thames Valley University, 1996. M. Rayner-Canham and G. Rayner-Canham discuss the specific case of chemistry in Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century, Philadelphia, 1998. M. Sanderson, The Universities and British Industry, 1850-1970, London, 1972, 314-38 discusses the general recruitment of women graduates into industry.
23. A useful discussion of this point can be found in M. Benjamin, 'Introduction' in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry. 1780-1945 (ed. M. Benjamin), Oxford, 1991, 1-23.
24. These points have been widely discussed. See for example Benjamin op. cit. (10); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Strategies and Struggles to 1940, Baltimore, 1982; P. Abir-Am and D. Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979, New Brunswick, 1987 and H. J. Mozans, Women in Science, London, 1913. For a fictional account of the perils of studying science see H. G. Wells, Ann Veronica, London, 1909, reprinted by Penguin Books, 1960.
25. These points have been widely discussed. See for example Benjamin op. cit. (10); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Strategies and Struggles to 1940, Baltimore, 1982; P. Abir-Am and D. Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979, New Brunswick, 1987 and H. J. Mozans, Women in Science, London, 1913. For a fictional account of the perils of studying science see H. G. Wells, Ann Veronica, London, 1909, reprinted by Penguin Books, 1960.
26. These points have been widely discussed. See for example Benjamin op. cit. (10); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Strategies and Struggles to 1940, Baltimore, 1982; P. Abir-Am and D. Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979, New Brunswick, 1987 and H. J. Mozans, Women in Science, London, 1913. For a fictional account of the perils of studying science see H. G. Wells, Ann Veronica, London, 1909, reprinted by Penguin Books, 1960.
27. These points have been widely discussed. See for example Benjamin op. cit. (10); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Strategies and Struggles to 1940, Baltimore, 1982; P. Abir-Am and D. Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979, New Brunswick, 1987 and H. J. Mozans, Women in Science, London, 1913. For a fictional account of the perils of studying science see H. G. Wells, Ann Veronica, London, 1909, reprinted by Penguin Books, 1960.
28. These points have been widely discussed. See for example Benjamin op. cit. (10); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Strategies and Struggles to 1940, Baltimore, 1982; P. Abir-Am and D. Outram, Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science 1789-1979, New Brunswick, 1987 and H. J. Mozans, Women in Science, London, 1913. For a fictional account of the perils of studying science see H. G. Wells, Ann Veronica, London, 1909, reprinted by Penguin Books, 1960.
29. Sanderson, op. cit. (9), 314-38, discusses these restrictions. The extent to which women's workplace opportunities relied on assumptions about what was compatible with their gender and class is discussed extensively in the literature on clerical work. See especially Jordan, op. cit. (5), 75-9 and A. Woollacott, 'Maternalism, professionalism and industrial welfare supervisors in World War I Britain', Women's History Review (1994), 3, 29-56.
30. Sanderson, op. cit. (9), 314-38, discusses these restrictions. The extent to which women's workplace opportunities relied on assumptions about what was compatible with their gender and class is discussed extensively in the literature on clerical work. See especially Jordan, op. cit. (5), 75-9 and A. Woollacott, 'Maternalism, professionalism and industrial welfare supervisors in World War I Britain', Women's History Review (1994), 3, 29-56.
31. Sanderson, op. cit. (9), 314-38, discusses these restrictions. The extent to which women's workplace opportunities relied on assumptions about what was compatible with their gender and class is discussed extensively in the literature on clerical work. See especially Jordan, op. cit. (5), 75-9 and A. Woollacott, 'Maternalism, professionalism and industrial welfare supervisors in World War I Britain', Women's History Review (1994), 3, 29-56.
32. Stevenson (op. cit. (9)) emphasizes the vocational motivations which underpinned women's participation in higher and further education as well as discussing their subsequent occupations. For details of women's involvement in higher education more generally see C. Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex? Women in British Universities, 1870-1939, London, 1995, which has an extensive bibliography.
33. Stevenson (op. cit. (9)) emphasizes the vocational motivations which underpinned women's participation in higher and further education as well as discussing their subsequent occupations. For details of women's involvement in higher education more generally see C. Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex? Women in British Universities, 1870-1939, London, 1995, which has an extensive bibliography.
34. Rayner-Canham and Rayner-Canham, op. cit. (9) 165-6 and 'situations wanted' advertisements in Scientific Worker (1922), 3, which listed the experience of women who described their current situation as 'disengaged'.
35. Rayner-Canham and Rayner-Canham, op. cit. (9) 165-6 and 'situations wanted' advertisements in Scientific Worker (1922), 3, which listed the experience of women who described their current situation as 'disengaged'.
36. G. Rayner-Canham and M. Rayner-Canham, 'A chemist of some repute', Chemistry in Britain (1993), 29, 206-8.
37. This means that here, as elsewhere, we need to be cautious about identifying the war itself as a decisive turning point. For a summary of the debates on this point see G. Braybon, 'Women and the War', in The First World War in British History (ed. S. Constantine, M. Kirby and M. Rose), London, 1995, 141-67. Wartime events do seem to have brought women greater access to the institutions of chemistry. In 1920 they were granted the right to join the Chemical Society after a debate which had lasted since the early 1890s. T. S. More and J. C. Philip, The Chemical Society 1841-1941, London, 1947, 85-97 and 185 and J. Mason, 'A forty years war', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 233-8.
38. This means that here, as elsewhere, we need to be cautious about identifying the war itself as a decisive turning point. For a summary of the debates on this point see G. Braybon, 'Women and the War', in The First World War in British History (ed. S. Constantine, M. Kirby and M. Rose), London, 1995, 141-67. Wartime events do seem to have brought women greater access to the institutions of chemistry. In 1920 they were granted the right to join the Chemical Society after a debate which had lasted since the early 1890s. T. S. More and J. C. Philip, The Chemical Society 1841-1941, London, 1947, 85-97 and 185 and J. Mason, 'A forty years war', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 233-8.
39. This means that here, as elsewhere, we need to be cautious about identifying the war itself as a decisive turning point. For a summary of the debates on this point see G. Braybon, 'Women and the War', in The First World War in British History (ed. S. Constantine, M. Kirby and M. Rose), London, 1995, 141-67. Wartime events do seem to have brought women greater access to the institutions of chemistry. In 1920 they were granted the right to join the Chemical Society after a debate which had lasted since the early 1890s. T. S. More and J. C. Philip, The Chemical Society 1841-1941, London, 1947, 85-97 and 185 and J. Mason, 'A forty years war', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 233-8.
40. Cadbury Archives, Bournville (hereafter CA), Annual Reports of the Chief Chemist, 1919-20.
41. Nature (1916), 97, 394.
42. Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7.
43. M. Sanderson, 'Research and the firm in British industry, 1919-39', Science Studies (1972), 2, 107-51 and K. Vernon, 'Science and technology', in Constantine et al., op. cit. (16).
44. M. Sanderson, 'Research and the firm in British industry, 1919-39', Science Studies (1972), 2, 107-51 and K. Vernon, 'Science and technology', in Constantine et al., op. cit. (16).
45. S. M. Horrocks, 'Consuming science: science, technology and food in Britain, 1870-1939', unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of Manchester, 1993, Chapter 4.
46. A number of social historians have commented on the extent to which opportunities for women were generated by the emergence of new jobs which had yet to become gendered, although whether this was in fact the case was often dependent on the specific characteristics of the local labour market. See, for example, M. Savage, 'Trade unions, sex segregation and the state: women's employment in "new industries" in inter-war Britain', Social History (1988), 13, 209-29 and G. de Groot and M. Schrover, 'Between men and machines: women workers in new industries, 1870-1940', Social History (1995), 20, 279-96.
47. A number of social historians have commented on the extent to which opportunities for women were generated by the emergence of new jobs which had yet to become gendered, although whether this was in fact the case was often dependent on the specific characteristics of the local labour market. See, for example, M. Savage, 'Trade unions, sex segregation and the state: women's employment in "new industries" in inter-war Britain', Social History (1988), 13, 209-29 and G. de Groot and M. Schrover, 'Between men and machines: women workers in new industries, 1870-1940', Social History (1995), 20, 279-96.
48. N. Blakestad, 'King's College of Household and Social Science and the Household Science Movement in English higher education c. 1908-1939', unpublished D.Phil thesis, Oxford University, 1994, (ASLIB, Thesis Abstracts, 45-9232), 244.
49. Many of these firms are listed in 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3). Additional evidence comes from D. E. H. Edgerton, 'Industrial research in the British photographic industry, 1879-1939', in The Challenge of New Technology: Innovation in British Business since 1850 (ed. J. Liebenau), Aldershot, 1988, 106-34; Association of Scientific Workers, Industrial Research Laboratories: A List, London, 1936; University of Warwick, Modern Records Centre CBI predecessor archive, MSS 200/F/T2/7/2, reply from Vitamins Ltd.
50. Many of these firms are listed in 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3). Additional evidence comes from D. E. H. Edgerton, 'Industrial research in the British photographic industry, 1879-1939', in The Challenge of New Technology: Innovation in British Business since 1850 (ed. J. Liebenau), Aldershot, 1988, 106-34; Association of Scientific Workers, Industrial Research Laboratories: A List, London, 1936; University of Warwick, Modern Records Centre CBI predecessor archive, MSS 200/F/T2/7/2, reply from Vitamins Ltd.
51. The limitations of this survey are discussed in D. E. H. Edgerton and S. M. Horrocks, 'British industrial research and development before 1945', Economic History Review (1994), 47, 213-38, 217.
52. 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3).
53. For a discussion of the figures relating to chemists in general, see Horrocks. op. cit. (21), 136-7.
54. Strachey, op. cit. (1), 45.
55. M. Olliver, 'Women in chemistry', Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (1955), 79, 413-20.
56. Published membership list, from the Liverpool Branch of the Society during the inter-war period include only one 'Miss' - Muriel Roberts, a public analyst - at a time when it is usually possible to identify women easily from such publications. Women also had a very low profile in the society at a national level. The records of the Liverpool branch are held in the Liverpool Record Office, Accs 4090.
57. Blakestad, op. cit. (23), 242.
58. 'Salaries and employment in chemistry', Journal ofv Careers (1937), 16, 169. See also F. Sherwood Taylor, 'Shall I go in for science? Part III. The process of training and finding employment', Journal of Careers (1939), 18, 89-91.
59. 'Salaries and employment in chemistry', Journal ofv Careers (1937), 16, 169. See also F. Sherwood Taylor, 'Shall I go in for science? Part III. The process of training and finding employment', Journal of Careers (1939), 18, 89-91.
60. J. Evetts, Gender and Career in Science and Engineering, London, 1996.
61. 'Women and executive responsibility', Journal of Careers (1936), 15, 318.
62. Sanderson op. cit. (9), 325.
63. The Times, 17 May 1980, 16.
64. R. Bramley, 'Kathleen Culhane Lathbury', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 428-31 and the longer typescript of this article kindly supplied by its author; D. Smith, interview with M. Olliver, Histon, 1979; Blakestad, op. cit. (23), Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7. The role of male mentors in securing women's access to positions in science is discussed in Abir-Am and Outram, op. cit. (11).
65. R. Bramley, 'Kathleen Culhane Lathbury', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 428-31 and the longer typescript of this article kindly supplied by its author; D. Smith, interview with M. Olliver, Histon, 1979; Blakestad, op. cit. (23), Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7. The role of male mentors in securing women's access to positions in science is discussed in Abir-Am and Outram, op. cit. (11).
66. R. Bramley, 'Kathleen Culhane Lathbury', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 428-31 and the longer typescript of this article kindly supplied by its author; D. Smith, interview with M. Olliver, Histon, 1979; Blakestad, op. cit. (23), Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7. The role of male mentors in securing women's access to positions in science is discussed in Abir-Am and Outram, op. cit. (11).
67. R. Bramley, 'Kathleen Culhane Lathbury', Chemistry in Britain (1991), 27, 428-31 and the longer typescript of this article kindly supplied by its author; D. Smith, interview with M. Olliver, Histon, 1979; Blakestad, op. cit. (23), Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7. The role of male mentors in securing women's access to positions in science is discussed in Abir-Am and Outram, op. cit. (11).
68. The continued prevalence of this practice is discussed in Evetts, op. cit. (33) and M. Savage 'Women's expertise men's authority: gendered organizations and the contemporary middle classes', in Gender and Bureaucracy (ed. M. Savage and A. Witz), Oxford, 1992, 124-51.
69. The continued prevalence of this practice is discussed in Evetts, op. cit. (33) and M. Savage 'Women's expertise men's authority: gendered organizations and the contemporary middle classes', in Gender and Bureaucracy (ed. M. Savage and A. Witz), Oxford, 1992, 124-51.
70. Bramley, op. cit. (37), 428.
71. P. Gould, 'Women and the culture of university physics in late nineteenth-century Cambridge', BJHS (1997), 30, 127-49.
72. Bramley, op. cit. (37), Smith, op. cit. (37).
73. Bramley, op. cit. (37), Smith, op. cit. (37).
74. Chemistry and Industry (1927). 46, 8 July, p. iv. These advertisements were part of the commercial information pages which were numbered with roman numerals, starting afresh for each weekly part. They have not usually been retained in bound volumes. The University of Leicester library has an incomplete run of unbound copies for the years 1923 to 1943.
75. Olliver, op. cit. (29).
76. Sanderson, op. cit. (9), 332.
77. Blakestad, op. cit. (23), 218.
78. F. G. Donnan, 'The chemist in industry', Journal of Careers (1936), 15, 73-7.
79. See Lewis, op. cit. (5), 162-205 and A. Oram, Women Teachers and Feminist Politics 1900-39, Manchester, 1996, 58-72.
80. See Lewis, op. cit. (5), 162-205 and A. Oram, Women Teachers and Feminist Politics 1900-39, Manchester, 1996, 58-72.
81. Olliver, op. cit. (29); and idem, 'Women in technology', Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (1957), 81, 715-21.
82. Olliver, op. cit. (29); and idem, 'Women in technology', Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry (1957), 81, 715-21.
83. The situations vacant column of Chemistry and Industry during the 1930s shows this distinction clearly and it was widely discussed in the careers literature. See especially 'Prospects of employment for women science graduates, Part IV, Careers in which science is useful though not the main subject', Journal of Careers, 1938, 17, 421-5.
84. The emergence of exclusively female scientific spaces is discussed in the academic context in M. L. Richmond, '"A lab of one's own": the Balfour biological laboratory for women at Cambridge University, 1884-1914', Isis, (1997), 88, 422-55.
85. Chemistry and Industry (1936), 55, 22 May, p. iv.
86. S. Williams, 'Scientific control in the milk industry', Journal of Careers (1932), 11, 23-5 and 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3). The general limits placed on women's responsibilities are discussed in 'Educated women's employment: its extent and variety', Journal of Careers (1934), 13, 239-43.
87. S. Williams, 'Scientific control in the milk industry', Journal of Careers (1932), 11, 23-5 and 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3). The general limits placed on women's responsibilities are discussed in 'Educated women's employment: its extent and variety', Journal of Careers (1934), 13, 239-43.
88. S. Williams, 'Scientific control in the milk industry', Journal of Careers (1932), 11, 23-5 and 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3). The general limits placed on women's responsibilities are discussed in 'Educated women's employment: its extent and variety', Journal of Careers (1934), 13, 239-43.
89. Rossiter, op. cit. (11). 265; and idem, ''Chemical librarianship: a kind of "women's work" in America', Ambix (1996) 43, 46-58; Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7.
90. Rossiter, op. cit. (11). 265; and idem, ''Chemical librarianship: a kind of "women's work" in America', Ambix (1996) 43, 46-58; Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7.
91. Rossiter, op. cit. (11). 265; and idem, ''Chemical librarianship: a kind of "women's work" in America', Ambix (1996) 43, 46-58; Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 96-7.
92. Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 97; H. Bassett, 'The organisation of a works laboratory and its relationship to the plant', Industrial Chemist (1934), 9, 330-2.
93. Pilcher, op. cit. (2), 97; H. Bassett, 'The organisation of a works laboratory and its relationship to the plant', Industrial Chemist (1934), 9, 330-2.
94. Chemistry and Industry (1933), 52, 10 February, p. iv.
95. Bramley, op. cit. (37), 430-1.
96. G. L. Payne, Britain's Scientific and Technological Manpower, Stanford, 1960, 373.
97. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Hughes, op. cit. (3); 'Educated women's employment', op. cit. (52).
98. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Hughes, op. cit. (3); 'Educated women's employment', op. cit. (52).
99. Strachey, op. cit. (1); Hughes, op. cit. (3); 'Educated women's employment', op. cit. (52).
100. A. E. Findley, 'Openings in science for secondary school boys: does the industrial laboratory afford a career?'. Journal of Careers (1935), 14, 555-8; L. H. Callendar, 'The laboratory technician in industry: a consideration of his prospects for promotion', Journal of Careers (1939), 18, 618-21; R. Brightman, 'Registration and the laboratory assistant', Industrial Chemist (1931), 6, 122-4.
101. A. E. Findley, 'Openings in science for secondary school boys: does the industrial laboratory afford a career?'. Journal of Careers (1935), 14, 555-8; L. H. Callendar, 'The laboratory technician in industry: a consideration of his prospects for promotion', Journal of Careers (1939), 18, 618-21; R. Brightman, 'Registration and the laboratory assistant', Industrial Chemist (1931), 6, 122-4.
102. A. E. Findley, 'Openings in science for secondary school boys: does the industrial laboratory afford a career?'. Journal of Careers (1935), 14, 555-8; L. H. Callendar, 'The laboratory technician in industry: a consideration of his prospects for promotion', Journal of Careers (1939), 18, 618-21; R. Brightman, 'Registration and the laboratory assistant', Industrial Chemist (1931), 6, 122-4.
103. 'Prospects for employment', op. cit. (3).
104. M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America Before Affirmative Action, Baltimore, 1995, 256.
105. Colman's Archives, J. W. Corran, 'The Research Department, Carrow Works, 1924-49', typescript, 1949, with subsequent amendments. For a more detailed account of the work of the department see Horrocks, op. cit. (21), 162-4.
106. Colman's Archives, J. W. Corran, 'The Research Department, Carrow Works, 1924-49', typescript, 1949, with subsequent amendments. For a more detailed account of the work of the department see Horrocks, op. cit. (21), 162-4.
107. The section is based on CA, Annual Reports of the Chief Chemist, 1901-39, supplemented by the Minutes of the Research Committee. A fuller account of the development and activities of the laboratories is found in Horrocks, op. cit. (21), 176-222.
108. G. Jones, 'Multinational chocolate: Cadbury overseas, 1918-39', Business History (1984), 26, 59-76.
109. Brightman, op. cit. (59).
110. Jordan, op. cit. (5).
111. See the literature cited in (5) and J. Evetts, op. cit. (33).
112. A. Witz, in Professions jnd Patriarchy (London, 1992), discusses the significance of gender in medical professionalization. On the profession of chemistry during the inter-war years see C. Russell, N. Coley and G. Roberts. Chemists by Profession, Milton Keynes, 1977, 236-83.
113. A. Witz, in Professions jnd Patriarchy (London, 1992), discusses the significance of gender in medical professionalization. On the profession of chemistry during the inter-war years see C. Russell, N. Coley and G. Roberts. Chemists by Profession, Milton Keynes, 1977, 236-83.