HIV/AIDS in Central Africa: Pathogenesis, immunological and medical issues

International Archives of Allergy and Immunology

Volumn 132, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 183-195

  Sibanda, Elopy Nimele ^a   Stanczuk, Grazyna ^a   Kasolo, Francis ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE   (Zimbabwe)

^b UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITAL   (Zambia)

Author keywords

HIV 1, Africa; HIV 1, children; HIV 1, women; Immunology; Virology

Indexed keywords

ANTIBODY; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RIFAMPICIN; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; CENTRAL AFRICA; CHILD; DERMATOLOGY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DRUG COST; ECONOMIC ASPECT; EPIDEMIC; FAMILY; FEMALE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GYNECOLOGY; HEMATOLOGY; HOME; HOUSEHOLD; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGY; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOREGULATION; KAPOSI SARCOMA; LABORATORY TEST; MALARIA; MEDICAL PRACTICE; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PATHOGENESIS; PNEUMONIA; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TOXICITY; TUBERCULOSIS; VIRUS STRAIN; WORKPLACE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICA, CENTRAL; CHILD; DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL; FEMALE; GENOTYPE; HIV; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PREGNANCY; VARIATION (GENETICS);

EID: 0344197647     PISSN: 10182438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000074299     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Kerkhoven R, Sendah M: HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe. AIDS Anal Afr 1999;9:13-16.
2. Mbizvo EM, Msuya SE, Hussain A, Chirenje MZ, Stray-Pedersen B: HIV prevalence in Zimbabwean women: 54-67% knowledge and perceived risk. Int J STD AIDS 2003;14:202-207.
3. Esteves A, Parreira R, Venenno T, Franco M, Piedade J, Germano De Sousa J, Canas-Ferreira WF: Molecular epidemiology of HIV type 1 infection in Portugal: High prevalence of non-B subtypes. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002;18:313-325.
4. Zhong P, Burda S, Urbanski M, Kenfack H, Tongo M, Heyndrickx L, Nanfack A, Shang J, Agyingi L, Zolla-Pazner S, Zekeng L, Nyambi P: HIV type 1 group M clades infecting subjects from rural villages in equatorial rain forests of Cameroon. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;31:495-505.
5. Vergne L, Bourgeois A, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Mougnutou R, Mbuagbaw J, Liegeois F, Laurent C, Butel C, Zekeng L, Delaporte E, Peeters M: Biological and genetic characteristics of HIV infections in Cameroon reveals dual group M and O infections and a correlation between SI-inducing phenotype of the predominant CRF02-AG variant and disease stage. Virology 2003;310:254-266.
6. Adje C, Cheingsong R, Roels TH, Maurice C, Djomand G, Verbiest W, Hertogs K, Larder B, Monga B, Peeters M, Eholie S, Bissagene E, Coulibaly M, Respess R, Wiktor SZ, Chorba T, Nkengasong JN; UNAIDS HIV Drug Access Initiative, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire: High prevalence of genotypic and phenotypic HIV-1 drug-resistant strains among patients receiving anti-retroviral therapy in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001;26:501-506.
7. Vidal N, Koyalta D, Richard V, Lechiche C, Ndinaromtan T, Djimasngar A, Delaporte E, Peeters M: High genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains in Chad, West Central Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;33:239-246.
8. Rayfield MA, Downing RG, Baggs J, Hu DJ, Pieniazek D, Luo CC, Biryahwaho B, Otten RA, Sempala SD, Dondero TJ: A molecular epidemiologic survey of HIV in Uganda. HIV Variant Working Group. AIDS 1998;12:521-527.
9. Poss M, Gosink J, Thomas E, Kreiss JK, Ndinya-Achola J, Mandaliya K, Bwayo J, Overbaugh J: Phylogenetic evaluation of Kenyan HIV type 1 isolates. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997;13:493-499.
10. Renjifo B, Essex M: HIV-1 Subtypes and Recombinants. AIDS in Africa, ed 2. New York, pp 263-281, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001.
11. Handema R, Terunuma H, Kasolo F, Kasai H, Sichone M, Yamashita A, Deng X, Mulundu G, Ichiyama K, Munkanta M, Yokota T, Wakasugi N, Tezuka F, Yamamoto N, Ito M: Prevalence of drug-resistance-associated mutations in antiretroviral drug-naive Zambians infected with subtype C HIV-1. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2003;19:151-160.
12. Pillay C, Bredell H, McIntyre J, Gray G, Morris L: HIV-1 subtype C reverse transcriptase sequences from drug-naive pregnant women in South Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002;18:605-610.
13. Plantier JC, Gueudin M, Damond F, Braun J, Mauclere P, Simon F: Plasma RNA quantification and HIV-1 divergent strains. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;33:1-7.
14. Papathanasopoulos MA, Hunt GM, Tiemessen CT: Evolution and diversity of HIV-1 in Africa, a review. Virus Genes 2003;26:151-163.
15. Montano MA, Nixon CP, Ndung'u T, Bussmann H, Novitsky VA, Dickman D, Essex M: Elevated tumor necrosis factor-1 activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C in Southern Africa is associated with an NF-kB enhancer gain-of-function. J Infect Dis 2000;181:76-81.
16. Velazquez-Campoy A, Vega S, Freire E: Amplification of the effects of drug resistance mutations by background polymorphisms in HIV-1 protease from African subtypes. Biochemistry 2002;41:8613-8619.
17. Frater AJ, Beardall A, Ariyoshi K, Churchill D, Galpin S, Clarke JR, Weber JN, McClure MO: Impact of baseline polymorphisms in RT and protease on outcome of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected African patients. AIDS 2001;15:1493-1502.
18. Johnston ER, Zijenah LS, Mutetwa S, Kantor R, Kittinunvorakoon C, Katzenstein DA: High frequency of syncytium-inducing and CXCR4-tropic viruses among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C-infected patients receiving antiretroviral treatment. J Virol 2003;77:7682-7688.
19. Zijenah LS, Hartogensis WE, Katzenstein DA, Tobaiwa O, Mutswangwa J, Mason PR, Louie LG: The association of high HIV-1 RNA levels and homozygosity at HLA class II DRB1 in adults coinfected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Harare, Zimbabwe. Hum Immunol 2002;63:1026-1032.
20. DeSantis SM, Pau CP, Archibald LK, Nwanyanwu OC, Kazembe PN, Dobbie H, Jarvis WR, Jason J: Demographic and immune correlates of human herpesvirus 8 seropositivity in Malawi, Africa. Int J Infect Dis 2002;6:266-271.
21. Zar HJ, Latief Z, Hughes J, Hussey G: Serum immunoglobulin E levels in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children with pneumonia. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2002;13:328-333.
22. Wilson SE, Pedersen SL, Kunich JC, Wilkins VL, Mann DL, Mazzara GP, Tartaglia J, Celum CL, Sheppard HW: Cross-clade envelope glycoprotein 160-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in early HIV type 1 clade B infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14:925-937.
23. Mwaba P, Maboshe M, Chintu C, Squire B, Nyirenda S, Sunkutu R, Zumla A: The relentless spread of tuberculosis in Zambia - Trends over the past 37 years (1964-2000). S Afr Med J 2003;93:149-152.
24. Corbett EL, Watt CJ, Walker N, Maher D, Williams BG, Raviglione MC, Dye C: The growing burden of tuberculosis: Global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1009-1021.
25. Onyemelukwe GC, Musa BO: CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes and clinical features of HIV seropositive Nigerians on presentation. Afr J Med Sci 2002;31:229-233.
26. Majoko F, Chipato T, Iliff V: Trends in maternal mortality for the Greater Harare Maternity Unit: 1976 to 1997. Cent Afr J Med 2001;47:199-203.
27. Corbett EL, Watt CJ, Walker N, Maher D, Williams BG, Raviglione MC, Dye C: The growing burden of tuberculosis: Global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1009-1021.
28. Chakaya JM, Bii C, Ng'ang'a L, Amukoye E, Ouko T, Muita L, Gathua S, Gitau J, Odongo I, Kabanga JM, Nagai K, Suzumura S, Sugiura Y: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV/AIDS patients at an urban district hospital in Kenya. East Afr Med J 2003;80:30-35.
29. Campbell TB, Borok M, White IE, Gudza I, Ndemera B, Taziwa A, Weinberg A, Gwanzura L: Relationship of Kaposi sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus viremia and KS disease in Zimbabwe. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:1144-1151.
30. Fang CT, Field SP, Busch MP, Heyns Adu P: Human immunodeficiency virus-1 and hepatitis C virus RNA among South African blood donors: Estimation of residual transfusion risk and yield of nucleic acid testing. Vox Sang 2003;85:9-19.
31. Mbanya DN, Minkoulou EM, Kaptue LN: HIV-1 infection in adults with haematological malignancies in Yaounde, Cameroon. West Afr J Med 2002;21:183-184.
32. Singh A, Georgalas C, Patel N, Papesch M: ENT presentations in children with HIV infection. Clin Otolaryngol 2003;28:240-243.
33. Masanganise R, Magava A: Orbital exenterations and squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva at Sekuru Kaguvi Eye Unit, Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med 2001;47:196-199.
34. Porges Y, Groisman GM: Prevalence of HIV with conjunctival squamous cell neoplasia in an African provincial hospital. Cornea 2003; 22:1-4.
35. Stratton P, Ciacco KH: Cervical neoplasia in the patient with HIV infection. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1994;6:86-91.
36. Ahmed HJ, Mbwana J, Gunnarsson E, Ahlman K, Guerino C, Svensso LA, Mhalu F, Lagergard T: Etiology of genital ulcer disease and association with human immunodeficiency virus infection in two Tanzanian cities. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:114-119.
37. Joesoef MR, Cheluget B, Marudera C, Ryan CA, DeCock K, Chebet K: Differential of HIV prevalence in women and men who attend sexually transmitted disease clinics at HIV sentinel surveillance sites in Kenya, 1990-2001. Int J STD AIDS 2003;14:193-196.
38. Kelly RJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, Wabwire-Mangen, Lutalo T, Wawer MJ: Age differences in sexual partners and risk of HIV-1 infection in rural Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;32:446-451.
39. Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Gloland PB, et al: Impairment of pregnant women's acquired ability to limit Plasmodium falciparum by infection with human immunodeficiency virus infection in Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996;55:42-49.
40. Parise ME, Ayisi JG, Nahlen BL, et al: Efficacy of sulfadoxine- pyrimethamine for prevention of placental malaria in an area of Kenya with a high prevalence of malaria and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998;59:813-822.
41. Verhoeff FH, Brabin BJ, Hart CA, Chimsuku L, Kazembe P, Broadhead RL: Increased prevalence of malaria in HIV-infected pregnant women and its implications for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 1999;4:5-12.
42. Kerkhoven R, Sendah M: HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe. AIDS Anal Afr 1999;9:13-16.
43. Fabiani M, Fylkesnes K, Nattabi B, Ayella EO, Declich S: Evaluation two adjustment methods to extrapolate HIV prevalence from pregnant women to the general female population in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS 2003;17:399-405.
44. Dreyfuss ML, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, et al: Determinants of low birth weight among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:814-826.
45. Brockelhurst P, French R: The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: A systemic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:836-848.
46. Hunter SC, Isingo R, Boerma JT, Urassa M, Mwaluko GM, Zaba B: The association between HIV and fertility in a cohort study in rural Tanzania. J Biosoc Sci 2003;35:189-199.
47. French R, Brocklehurst P: The effect of pregnancy on survival in women infected with HIV: A systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:827-835.
48. Rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa, America, and Europe: Results from 13 perinatal studies. The Working Group on Mother-To-Child Transmission of HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995;8:506-510.
49. Kuhn L, Steketee RW, Weedon J, et al: Distinct risk factors for intrauterine and intrapartum human immunodeficiency virus transmission and consequences for disease progression in infected children. J Infect Dis 1999;179:52-58.
50. Simonon A, Lepage P, Karita E, et al: An assessment of the timing of mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by means of polymerase chain reaction. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994;7:952-957.
51. Bertolli J, St Louis ME, Simonds RJ, et al: Estimating the timing of mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in breast-feeding population in Kinshasa, Zaire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1996;174:722-726.
52. Guevara H, Johnston E, Zijenah L, Tobaiwa O, Mason P, Contag C, Mahomed K, Hendry M, Katzenstein D: Prenatal transmission of subtype C HIV-1 in Zimbabwe: HIV-1 RNA and DNA in maternal and cord blood. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000;25:390-397.
53. Katzenstein DA, Mbizvo M, Zijenah L, Gittens T, Munjoma M, Hill D, Madzime S, Maldonado Y: Serum levels of maternal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) RNA, infant mortality, and vertical transmission on HIV in Zimbabwe. J Infect Dis 1999;179:1382-1387.
54. Stringer JSA, Vermund SH: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1999;11:427-434.
55. Leroy V, Karon JM, Alioum A, Ekpini ER, Van De Perre P, Greenberg AE, Msellati P, Hudgens M, Dabis F, Wiktor SZ; West Africa PMTCT Study Group: Postnatal transmission of HIV-1 after a maternal short-course zidovudine peripartum regimen in West Africa. AIDS 2002;16:631-641.
56. Stringer EM, Sinkala M, Stringer JS, Mzyece E, Makuka I, Goldenberg RL, Kwape P, Chilufya M, Vermund SH: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Africa: Successes and challenges in scaling-up a nevirapine-based program in Lusaka, Zambia. AIDS 2003;17:1377-1382.
57. van Eijk AM, Ayisi JG, ter Kuile FO, Misore AO, Otieno JA, Rosen DH, Kager PA, Steketee RW, Nahlen BL: HIV increases the risk of malaria in women of all gravidities in Kisumu, Kenya. AIDS 2003;17:595-603.
58. Whitworth J, Morgan D, Quigley M, et al: Effect of HIV-1 and increasing immunosup-pression on malaria parasitaemia and clinical episodes in adults in rural Uganda: A cohort study. Lancet 2000;356:1051-1056.
59. French N, Nakiyingi J, Lugada E, Watera C, Whitworth JA, Gliks CF: Increasing rates of malarial fever with deteriorating immune status in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. AIDS 2001;15:899-906.
60. Moore JM, Ayisi J, Nahlen BL, Misore AO, Lal AA, Udhayakumar V: Immunity to placental malaria. II. Placental antigen-specific cytokine responses are impaired in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. J Infect Dis 2000;182:960-964.
61. Chaisavaneeyakorm S, Moore J, Otieno J, et al: Immunity to placental malaria. Impairment of interleukin (IL)-12, not IL-8, and interferon-inducible protein-10 responses in the placental intervillous blood of human immunodeficiency virus/malaria-coinfected women. J Infect Dis 2002;185:127-131.
62. Ayisi JG, Branch OH, Rafi-Janajreh A, van Eijk AM, ter Kuile FO, Rosen DH, Kager PA, Lanar DE, Barbosa A, Kaslow D, Nahlen BL, Lal AA: Does infection with human immunodeficiency virus affect the antibody responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigenic determinants in asymptomatic pregnant women. J Infect 2003;46:164-172.
63. Wimalasundera RC, Larbalestier N, Smith JH, de Ruiter A, Thom SAMcG, Hughes AD, Poulter N, Regan L, Taylor GP: Pre-eclampsia, antiretroviral therapy, and immune reconstitution. Lancet 2002;360:1152-1154.
64. Williams AB: Gynecologic care for women with HIV infection. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2003;32:87-93.
65. Maiman M, Fruchter RG, Serur E, et al: Human immunodeficiency virus and cervical neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 1990;38:377-382.
66. Wright TC Jr, Sun XW: Anogenital papillo-mavirus infection and neoplasia in immunodeficient women. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1996;23:861-893.
67. Conti M, Agarossi A, Parazzini F, et al: HPV, HIV infection, and risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in former intravenous drug abusers. Gynecol Oncol 1993;49:344-348.
68. Sun XW, Ellerbrock TV, Lungu O, et al: Human papillomavirus infecton in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive women. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:680-686.
69. Luque AE, Demeter LM, Reichman RC: Association of human papillomavirus infection and disease with magnitude of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA plasma level among women with HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 1999;179:1405-1409.
70. Clarke S, Butler K, Bergin C, Lyons F, Sheehan G, Horgan M, Mulcahy F; Irish Infection Society: National guidelines for the active management of HIV in pregnancy. Ir Med J 2001;94:137-140.
71. Moodley D, Moodley J, Coovadia H, Gray G, McIntyre J, Hofmyer J, Nikodem C, Hall D, Gigliotti M, Robinson P, Boshoff L, Sullivan JL; South African Intrapartum Nevirapine Trial (SAINT) Investigators: A multicenter randomized controlled trial of nevirapine versus a combination of zidovudine and lamivudine to reduce intrapartum and early postpartum mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis 2003;187:725-735.
72. Moore AL, Kirk O, Johnson AM, Katlama C, Blaxhult A, Dietrich M, Colebunders R, Chiesi A, Lungren JD, Phillips AN: EuroSIDA group. Virologic, immunologic, and clinical response to highly active antiretroviral therapy: The gender issue revisited. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;32:452-461.
73. Ogundele MO, Coulter JB: HIV transmission through breastfeeding: Problems and prevention. Ann Trop Paediatr 2003;23:91-106.
74. Rogers MF, Thomas PA, Starcher ET, Noa MC, Bush TJ, Jaffe HW: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in children: Report of the Centres for Disease Control National Surveillance 1982-1985. Pediatrics 1987;79:1008-1014.
75. Zijenah L, Mbizvo MT, Kasule J, Nathoo K, Munjoma M, Mahomed K, Maldonado Y, Madzime S, Katzenstein D: Mortality in the first 2 years among infants born to human immunodeficiency virus-infected women in Harare, Zimbabwe. J Infect Dis 1998;178:109-113.
76. Sidley P: HIV infection rate among South African children found to be 5.6%. BMJ 2002;325:1380.
77. Palme IB, Gudetta B, Bruchfeld J, Muhe L, Giesecke J: Impact of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection on clinical presentation, treatment outcome and survival in a cohort of Ethiopian children with tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002;21:1053-1061.
78. Ansari NA, Kombe AH, Kenyon TA, Mazhani L, Binkin N, Tappero JW, Gebrekristos T, Nyirenda S, Lucas SB: Pathology and causes of death in a series of human immunodeficiency virus-positive and -negative pediatric referral hospital admissions in Botswana. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:43-47.
79. Zar HJ, Apolles P, Argent A, Klein M, Burgess J, Hanslo D, Bateman ED, Hussey G: The etiology and outcome of pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children admitted to intensive care in a developing country. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2001;2:108-112.
80. Onyemelukwe GC, Musa BO: CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes and clinical features of HIV seropositive Nigerians on presentation. Afr J Med Med Sci 2002;31:229-233.
81. Josefson D: Children of HIV infected mothers have heart damage. BMJ 2002;324:1544.
82. DeSantis SM, Pau CP, Archibald LK, Nwanyanwu OC, Kazembe PN, Dobbie H, Jarvis WR, Jason J: Demographic and immune correlates of human herpesvirus 8 seropositivity in Malawi, Africa. Int J Infect Dis 2002;6:266-271.
83. Alabi AS, Jaffar S, Ariyoshi K, Blanchard T, Schim Van Der Loeff M, Awasana AA, Corrah T, Sabally S, Sarge-Njie R, Cham-Jallow F, Jaye A, Berry N, Whittle H: Plasma viral load, CD4 cell percentage, HLA and survival of HIV-1, HIV-2, and dually infected Gambian patients. AIDS 2003;17:1513-1520.
84. Janossy G, Jani IV, Bradley NJ, Bikoue A, Pitfield T, Glencross DK: Affordable CD4(+)-T-cell counting by flow cytometry: CD45 gating for volumetric analysis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002;9:1085-1094.
85. Janossy G, Jani IV, Kahan M, Barnett D, Mandy F, Shapiro H: Precise CD4 T-cell counting using red diode laser excitation: For richer, for poorer. Cytometry 2002;50:78-85.
86. Schüpbach J, Boni J, Bisset LR, Tomasik Z, Fischer M, Günthard HF, Ledergerber B, Opravil M: Swiss HIV Cohort Study HIV-1 p24 antigen is a significant inverse correlate of CD4 T-cell change in patients with suppressed viremia under long-term antiretroviral therapy J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;33:292-299.
87. Orrell C, Bangsberg DR, Badri M, Wood R: Adherence is not a barrier to successful antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. AIDS 2003;17:1369-1375.
88. Batra M, Tien PC, Shafer RW, Contag CH, Katzenstein DA: HIV type 1 envelope subtype C sequences from recent seroconverters in Zimbabwe. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:973-979.
89. Bikandou B, Takehisa J, Mboudjeka I, Ido E, Kuwata T, Miyazaki Y, Moriyama H, Harada Y, Taniguchi Y, Ichimura H, Ikeda M, Ndolo PJ, Nzoukoudi MY, M'Vouenze R, M'Pandi M, Parra HJ, M'Pele P, Hayami M: Genetic subtypes of HIV type 1 in Republic of Congo. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:613-619.
90. Bredell H, Williamson C, Sonnenberg P, Martin DJ, Morris L: Genetic characterization of HIV type 1 from migrant workers in three South African gold mines. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1998;14:677-684.
91. Bredell H, Hunt G, Morgan B, Tiemessen CT, Martin DJ, Morris L: Identification of HIV type 1 intersubtype recombinants in South Africa using env and gag heteroduplex mobility assays. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:493-497.
92. Davies FJ, d'Almeida O, Timmers E, d'Ameida J, Fasken M, Bassabi K, Lee H, Allain JP: Molecular genotyping of HIV-1 in 61 patients with AIDS from Lome, Togo. J Med Virol 1999;57:25-30.
93. Ellenberger DL, Pieniazek D, Nkengasong J, Luo CC, Devare S, Maurice C, Janini M, Ramos A, Fridlund C, Hu DJ, Coulibaly IM, Ekpini E, Wiktor SZ, Greenberg AE, Schochetman G, Rayfield MA: Genetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus in Abidjan, Ivory Coast reveals predominance of HIV type 1 subtype A and introduction of subtype G. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1999;15:3-9.
94. Fonjungo PN, Mpoudi EN, Torimiro JN, Alemnji GA, Eno LT, Nkengasong JN, Gao F, Rayfield M, Folks TM, Pieniazek D, Lal RB: Presence of diverse human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral variants in Cameroon. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:1319-1324.
95. Handema R, Terunuma H, Kasolo F, Kasai H, Sichone M, Mulundu G, Deng X, Ichiyama K, Mitarai S, Honda M, Yamamoto N, Ito M: Emergence of new HIV-1 subtypes other than subtype C among antenatal women in Lusaka, Zambia. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2001;17:759-763.
96. Heyndrickx L, Janssens W, Zekeng L, Musonda R, Anagonou S, Van der Auwera G, Coppens S, Vereecken K, de Witte K, Van Rampelbergh R, Kahindo M, Morison L, McCutchan FE, Carr JK, Albert J, Essex M, Goudsmit J, Asjo B, Salminen M, Buve A, van Der Groen G: Simplified strategy for detection of recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 group M isolates by gag/env heteroduplex mobility assay. Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. J Virol 2000;74:363-370.
97. Holm-Hansen C, Stern B, Rustad S, Shao J, Asjo B: V3 sequence analysis and biological characterization of HIV-1 isolates from asymptomatic and early symptomatic Tanzanian individuals. APMIS 2000;108:608-616.
98. Ishikawa K, Janssens W, Brandful J, Heyndrickx L, Takebe Y, Ampofo W, Sata T, Yamazaki S, Osei-Kwasi M, Yamamoto N, Koyanagi Y, Van der Groen G, Kurata T: Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of HIV type 1 env subtypes in Ghana, West Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996;12:1575-1578.
99. Kiwelu IE, Nakkestad HL, Shao J, Sommerfelt MA: Evidence of subtype B-like sequences in the V3 loop region of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:1191-1195.
100. Kaleebu P, Whitworth J, Hamilton L, Rutebemberwa A, Lyagoba F, Morgan D, Duffield M, Biryahwaho B, Magambo B, Oram J: Molecular epidemiology of HIV type 1 in a rural community in southwest Uganda. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:393-401.
101. Koch N, Ndlhokubwayo JB, Yahi N, Tourres C, Fantini J, Tamalet C: Genetic analysis of HIV type 1 strains in Bujumbura (Burundi): predominance of subtype c variant. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2001;17:269-273.
102. Mamadou S, Montavon C, Ben A, Djibo A, Rabiou S, Mboup S, Delaporte E, Peeters M: Predominance of CRF02-AG and CRF06-cpx in Niger, West Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002;18:723-726.
103. Cornelissen M, van Den Burg R, Zorgdrager F, Goudsmit J: Spread of distinct human immunodeficiency virus type 1 AG recombinant lineages in Africa. J Gen Virol 2000;81:515-523.
104. Mokili JL, Wade CM, Burns SM, Cutting WA, Bopopi JM, Green SD, Peutherer JF, Simmonds P: Genetics heterogeneity of HIV type 1 subtypes in Kimpese, rural Democratic Republic of Congo. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1999;15:655-664.
105. Murphy E, Korber B, Georges-Courbot MC, You B, Pinter A, Cook D, Kieny MP, Georges A, Mathiot C, Barre-Sinoussi F, et al. Diversity of V3 region sequences of human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 from the central African Republic. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1993;10:997-1006.
106. Novitsky VA, Montano MA, McLane MF, Renjifo B, Vannberg F, Foley BT, Ndung'u TP, Rahman M, Makhema MJ, Marlink R, and Max Essex Molecular Cloning and Phylogenetic Analysis of Human Immunodificiency Virus Type 1 Subtype C: a Set of 23 Full-Length Clones from Bostwana. J Virol 1999;73:4427-4432.
107. Peeters M, Esu-Williams E, Vergne L, Montavon C, Mulanga-Kabeya C, Harry T, Ibironke A, Lesage D, Patrel D, Delaporte E: Predominance of subtype A and G HIV type 1 in Nigeria, with geographical differences in their distribution. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:315-325.
108. Ping LH, Nelson JA, Hoffman IF, Schock J, Lamers SL, Goodman M, Vernazza P, Kazembe P, Maida M, Zimba D, Goodenow MM, Eron JJ Jr, Fiscus SA, Cohen MS, Swanstrom R: Characterization of V3 sequence heterogeneity in subtype C human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from Malawi: underrepresentation of X4 variants. J Virol 1999;73:6271-6281.
109. Trask SA, Derdeyn CA, Fideli U, Chen Y, Meleth S, Kasolo F, Musonda R, Hunter E, Gao F, Allen S, Hahn BH: Molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission in a heterosexual cohort of discordant couples in Zambia. J Virol 2002;76:397-405.
110. Taniguchi Y, Takehisa J, Bikandou B, Mboudjeka I, N'Doundou-N'Kodia MY, Obengui M'Pandi M, M'Pele P, Harada Y, Ido E, Hayami M, Ichimura H, Parra HJ: Genetic subtypes of HIV type 1 based on the vpu/env sequences in the Republic of Congo. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002;18:79-83.
111. Toure-Kane C, Montavon C, Faye MA, Gueye PM, Sow PS, Ndoye I, Gaye-Diallo A, Delaporte E, Peeters M, Mboup S: Identification of all HIV type 1 group M subtypes in Senegal, a country with low and stable sero-prevalence. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:603-609.
112. Treurnicht FK, Smith TL, Engelbrecht S, Claassen M, Robson BA, Zeier M, van Rensburg EJ: Genotypic and phenotypic analysis of the env gene from South African HIV-1 subtype B and C isolates. J Med Virol 2002; 68:141-146.
113. van Harmelen J, Wood R, Lambrick M, Rybicki EP, Williamson AL, Williamson C: An association between HIV-1 subtypes and mode of transmission in Cape Town, South Africa. AIDS 1997;11:81-87.
114. Vidal N, Peeters M, Mulanga-Kabeya C, Nzilambi N, Robertson D, Ilunga W, Sema H, Tshimanga K, Bongo B, Delaporte E: Unprecedented degree of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. J Virol 2000;74:10498-10507.
115. Vidal N, Mulanga-Kabeya C, Nzilambi N, Delaporte E, Peeters M: Identification of a complex env subtype E HIV type 1 virus from the democratic republic of Congo recombinant with A, G, H, J, K, and unknown subtypes. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000;16:2059-2064.
116. Williamson C, Morris L, Maughan MF, Ping LH, Dryga SA, Thomas R, Reap EA, Cilliers T, van Harmelen J, Pascual A, Ramjee G, Gray G, Johnston R, Karim SA, Swanstrom R: Characterization and selection of HIB-1 subtype C isolates for use in vaccine development. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2003;19:133-144.