Ethics of university research, biotechnology and potential military spin-off

Minerva

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 15-35

  Nixdorff, Kathryn ^a   Bender, Wolfgang ^a  

^a DARMSTADT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0344162467     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1015045127363     Document Type: Article

References (98)

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26. Ibid.
27. Under the general purpose criterion, it is not the objects themselves, but the purposes for which they may be applied that are prohibited. In this way, it is not necessary to ban dual-use technologies that have legitimate purposes, but that can also be applied to develop or produce BW. By using the general purpose criterion, the scope of the prohibition is comprehensive, because Article I of the BTWC lists the purposes that are not prohibited.
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40. Wright, op. cit. note 23;
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42. 'Anwendung der Gentechnologie zu militärischen Zwecken' [Application of Genetic Engineering for Military Purposes], Chancen und Risiken der Gentechnologie. Bericht der Enquete-Kommission des 10. Deutschen Bundestages [Opportunities and Risks of Genetic Engineering. Report by the Commission of Enquiry of the 10th German Bundestag] (Bonn: Deutscher Bundestag, 1987), 260-267.
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47. See J.E. van Courtland Moon, 'US Biological Warfare Planning and Preparedness: The Dilemma of Policy', in E. Geissler and J.E. van Courtland Moon (eds.), Biological and Toxin Weapons: Research, Development and Use from the Middle Ages to 1945, SIPRI Chemical and Biological Warfare Studies 18 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 215-254;
48. G.B. Carter and G.S. Pearson, 'British Biological Warfare and Biological Defence, 1925-1945', in Geissler and van Courtland Moon (eds.), idem, 168-189;
49. see also Tucker, op. cit. note 25;
50. Black, op. cit. note 25.
51. C.A. Loshon, P.C. Genest, B. Setlow, and P. Setlow, 'Formaldehyde Kills Spores of Bacillus subtilis by DNA Damage and Small, Acid-soluble Spore Proteins of the Alpha/Beta-type Protect Spores Against this DNA Damage', Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87 (1999), 8-14;
52. B. Setlow, K.J. Tautvydas and P. Setlow, 'Small, Acid-soluble Spore Proteins of the Alpha/Beta-type do not Protect the DNA in Bacillus subtilis Spores Against Base Alkylation', Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64 (1998), 1958-1962.
53. G. Sandmann, S. Kuhn, and P. Boger, 'Evaluation of Structurally Different Caroten-oids in Escherichia coli Transformants as Protectants Against UV-B Radiation', Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64 (1998), 1972-1974;
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55. J.B. Griffiths, 'Cell Biology: Experimental Aspects', in R.E. Spier and J.B. Griffiths (eds.), Animal Cell Biotechnology (London: Academic Press, 1989), vol. 1, 49-83.
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61. S. Falkow, 'From Wimp to Pathogen', American Society for Microbiology News, 55 (1989), 10.
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63. Ibid.
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66. Ibid.
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72. See D. Henrich, Ethik zum nuklearen Frieden [Ethics Regarding Nuclear Peace] (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1990);
73. U. Nerlich and T. Rendtorff (eds.), Nukleare Abschreckung. Politische und ethische Implikationen einer neuen Realitaet [Nuclear Deterrence. Political and Ethical Implications of a New Reality] (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1989).
74. See Pastoral Letter of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 'The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response', NCCB, 150 (1983);
75. 'The Morality of Nuclear Deterrence. An Evaluation by Pax Christi Bishops in the United States', issued on the fifteenth anniversary of 'The Challenge of Peace, God's Promise and Our Response', June 1998. In this Pastoral Letter, the bishops 'reluctantly acknowledged the possibility that nuclear weapons could have some moral legitimacy, but only if the goal was nuclear disarmament'. Fifteen years later, the Pax Christi bishops, 'witnessing the institutionalisa-tion of nuclear deterrence instead of nuclear disarmament, now feel it is imperative to raise a clear, unambiguous voice in opposition to the continued reliance on nuclear deterrence'.
76. See W. Bender, 'Problems of a Contemporary Peace Ethics: Toward Eternal Peace or Toward Nuclear Peace', in M.B. Kalinowski (ed.), Global Elimination of Nuclear Weapons (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2000) 23-29;
77. W. Bender, 'Wege zum dauerhaften Frieden' [Routes Towards Durable Peace], in W. Bender, Gerechtigkeit und Frieden - Zur Diskussion um zwei zentrale Themen der politischen Ethik [Justice and Peace - On the Debate on Two Central Themes in Political Ethics] IANUS-Arbeitsbericht, 13/1992, 35-67;
78. W. Huber and H.R. Reuter, Friedensethik [Peace Ethics] (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1990);
79. D. Senghaas, 'Das Ma des Friedens ist der Frieden selbst. Eine Idee, deren Zeit gekommen ist: konstruktiver Pazifismus' [The Measure of Peace is Peace Itself. An Idea Whose Time has Come: Constructive Pacifism], in Frankfurter Rundschau, 3 April 1999;
80. E. Tugendhat, 'Das Friedensproblem heute' [The Problem of Peace Today], in Ethik und Politik [Ethics and Politics] (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1992), 116-132.
81. Enright and Spratt, op. cit. note 44.
82. Stepanov, Marinin, Pomerantsev and Staritsin, op. cit. note 48.
83. Turnbull, op. cit. note 47.
84. Green, Battisti and Thorne, op. cit. note 49. 00 Nass, op. cit. note 50.
85. See A. Schopenhauer, Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik[The Two Basic Problems in Ethics] (Zürich: Diogenes, 1977), 251;
86. See W. Bender, K. Platzer and K. Sinemus, 'On the Assessment of Genetic Technology: Reaching Ethical Judgments in the Light of Modern Technology', Science and Engineering Ethics, 1 (1995), 21-32. Among the rules for the weighing of benefits, the authors introduce the rule for reducing side effects which states 'that the application of a technical process for the attainment of an ethically justified aim is permissible only when the negative consequences are reduced to the absolute minimum'.
87. Pomerantsev, Staritsin, Mockov and Marinin, op. cit. note 51.
88. See O. Hoeffe, 'Besonnenheit, Gerechtigkeit und Zivilcourage. Ueber Ressourcen-knappheit im Gesundheitswesen' [Prudence, Justice and Civil Courage. On Resource Scarcity in the Health Sector], Zeitschriftfür Evangelische Ethik, 44 (2000), 89-102.
89. See R. Spaemann, 'Technische Eingriffe in die Natur als Problem der politischen Ethik' [Technical Interference in Nature as Problem of Political Ethics], in D. Birnbacher (ed.),Ökologie und Ethik [Ecology and Ethics] (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1980), 180-206.
90. See L.A. Cole, 'Ethics and Biological Warfare Research', Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 577 (1989), 154-163;
91. D. MacLean, 'Ethics and Biological Defense Research',Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 666 (1992), 100-112.
92. Ibid.
93. Ibid.
94. Cole, op. cit. note 64;
95. D. Callahan, 'Ethical Responsibility in Science in the Face of Uncertain Consequences', Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 265 (1976), 1-12.
96. Cole, op. cit. note 64.
97. M.R. Dando, 'Article I: Scope', in G.S. Pearson and M.R. Dando (eds.), Strengthening the Biological Weapons Convention. Key Points for the Fourth Review Conference (Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office, 1996).
98. C.F. von Weizsäcker, 'Bedingungen des Friedens' [Conditions for Peace], in Der bedrohte Friede [The Threatened Peace] (Munich: Hanser, 1981), 125-137.