Consent and anaesthetic risk

Anaesthesia

Volumn 58, Issue 10, 2003, Pages 962-984

  Jenkins, K ^a   Baker, A B ^a,b  

^a ROYAL PRINCE ALFRED HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b SOUTHMEAD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anaesthesia; risk; Complication; incidence, mortality, morbidity, perioperative

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIEMETIC AGENT; BUPIVACAINE; CREATININE; CREMOPHOR; DEXAMETHASONE; DIAZEPAM; DROPERIDOL; ETOMIDATE; FENTANYL; LATEX; LIDOCAINE; MEPIVACAINE; METHOHEXITAL; MORPHINE; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENT; NITROUS OXIDE; ONDANSETRON; OPIATE DERIVATIVE; PROPYLENE GLYCOL; SEROTONIN 3 ANTAGONIST; STEROID; TETRACAINE; THIOPENTAL;

ABDUCENS NERVE INJURY; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANESTHESIA COMPLICATION; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ARTERY PERFORATION; BACKACHE; BLOOD VESSEL OCCLUSION; BRACHIAL PLEXUS ANESTHESIA; BRAIN INFECTION; BRONCHOSPASM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMMUNITY; COMORBIDITY; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; CRANIAL NERVE INJURY; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; DELIRIUM; DIPLOPIA; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOSE RESPONSE; DROWSINESS; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG TOXICITY; EPIDURAL ABSCESS; EPIDURAL HEMATOMA; EYE DISEASE; EYE INJURY; FACIAL NERVE INJURY; GENERAL ANESTHESIA; HEADACHE; HEARING IMPAIRMENT; HEART ARREST; HEMATOPNEUMOTHORAX; HUMAN; HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE DISEASE; HYPOVOLEMIA; INCIDENCE; LACERATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG ASPIRATION; LUNG DISEASE; META ANALYSIS; MONOTHERAPY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MOUTH DISEASE; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PARAPLEGIA; PARESTHESIA; PATIENT CONTROLLED ANALGESIA; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; PERIPHERAL NERVE INJURY; PNEUMONIA; PNEUMOTHORAX; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSTOPERATIVE NAUSEA AND VOMITING; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; PTOSIS; PULMONARY VALVE INSUFFICIENCY; RETROBULBAR HEMORRHAGE; REVIEW; RISK; SEIZURE; SKIN DISEASE; SORE THROAT; SPINAL ANESTHESIA; SPINAL CORD HEMORRHAGE; SUBDURAL HEMATOMA; SYSTEMIC DISEASE; THROMBOPHLEBITIS; TOOTH DISEASE; TOOTH FRACTURE; TOOTH INJURY; URINARY DYSFUNCTION; URINE RETENTION; VAGUS NERVE INJURY; VERTIGO; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT;

ANESTHESIA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; INFORMED CONSENT; MORBIDITY; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; RESPIRATION DISORDERS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 0141955958     PISSN: 00032409     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2044.2003.03410.x     Document Type: Review

References (247)

1. Rogers v. Whitaker (1990) 4 Medical LR79 (High Court of Australia); 1992 109 ALR265; 67 ALJR 47; Medical Law R 331; 175 LLR 479
2. Sidaway v Board of Governors of Bethlem Royal Hospital and the Maudsley Hospital (1985). AC 871
3. Chappel v Hart (1998). 72 ALJR 1344.
4. Scott RJ. Chappel v Hart: The High Court considers causation of damage from a surgeon's negligent failure to warn. Medical Journal of Australia 2000; 172: 134-6.
5. National Health and Medical Research Council. General Guidelines for Medical Practitioners on Providing Information to Patients. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1993.
6. General Medical Council. Seeking Patients' Consent: The Ethical Considerations. London: General Medical Council, 1999.
7. Rosenberg v Percival (2001) HCA 18.
8. Buck N, Devlin HB, Lunn JN. The Report of a Confidential Enquiry into Peri-Operative Deaths. London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust and the King's Fund, 1987.
9. Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists. A Review of Anaesthesia Related Mortality 1997-99 (Appendix 3). Melbourne, Australia: ANZCA, 2002.
10. Department of Health. NHS performance indicators. Available at: http://www.doh.gov.uk/nhsperformance.indicators
11. Beecher HK, Todd DP. A study of the deaths associated with anaesthesia and surgery. Annals of Surgery 1954; 140: 2-34.
12. Vacanti CJ, Van Houten RJ, Hill RC. A statistical analysis of the relationship of physical status to postoperative mortality in 68,388 cases. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1970; 49: 564-6.
13. Marx GF, Mateo CV, Orkin LR. Computer analysis of postanesthetic deaths. Anesthesiology 1973; 39: 54-8.
14. Hovi-Viander M. Death associated with anaesthesia in Finland. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1980; 52: 483-9.
15. Turnbull KW, Fancourt-Smith PF, Banting GC. Death within 48 hours of anaesthesia at the Vancouver General Hospital. Canadian Anaesthetic Society Journal 1980; 27: 159-63.
16. Lunn JN, Mushin WW. Mortality associated with anesthesia. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 856.
17. Gibbs JM. The anaesthetic mortality assessment committee 1979-1984. New Zealand Medical Journal 1986; 99: 55-9.
18. Tiret L, Desmonts JM, Hatton F, Vourc'h G. Complications associated with anaesthesia: A prospective survey in France. Canadian Anaesthetic Society Journal 1986; 33: 336-44.
19. Olsson GL, Hallen B. Cardiac arrest during anaesthesia. A computer aided study in 250 543 anaesthetics. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1988; 32: 653-4.
20. Pederson T, Johansen SH. Serious morbidity attributable to anaesthesia. Considerations for prevention. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 504-8.
21. Harrison GG. Death due to anaesthesia at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town 1956-87. Part 1. Incidence. South African Medical Journal 1990; 77: 412-15.
22. National Health and Medical Research Council. Report on Deaths Associated with Anaesthesia in Australia 1985-87. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1990.
23. National Health and Medical Research Council. Report on Deaths Associated with Anaesthesia in Australia 1988-90. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1992.
24. Wang L, Hagerdal M. Reported anaesthetic complications during an 11-year period. A retrospective study. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1992; 36: 234-40.
25. Warden JC, Borton CL, Horan BF. Mortality associated with anaesthesia in NSW 1984-1990. Medical Journal of Australia 1994; 161: 585-93.
26. Tikkanen J, Hovi-Viander M. Death associated with anaesthesia and surgery in Finland in 1986 compared to 1975. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1995; 39: 262-7.
27. McKenzie AG. Mortality associated with anaesthesia at Zimbabwean teaching hospitals. South African Medical Journal 1996; 86: 338-42.
28. Eagle CC, Davis NJ. Report of the Anaesthetic Mortality Committee of Western Australia 1990-1995. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1997; 25: 51-9.
29. Horan BF (Committee on Anaesthetic Mortality). Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists: Anaesthesia Related Mortality in Australia 1991-1993. Melbourne, Australia, ANZCA, 1998.
30. Davis NJ (Committee on Anaesthetic Mortality) Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists: Anaesthesia Related Mortality in Australia 1994-1996. Melbourne, Australia: ANZCA, 1999.
31. NHS Executive. Quality and Performance in the NHS. NHS Performance Indicators. London: NHSE, July 2000.
32. Arbous MS, Grobbee DE, Van Kleef JW et al. Mortality associated with anaesthesia: A qualitative analysis to identify risk factors. Anaesthesia 2001; 56: 1141-53.
33. Kawashima Y, Seo N, Morita K et al. Annual study of perioperative mortality and morbidity for the year of 1999 in Japan: The outlines - Report of the Japan Society of Anesthesiologists Committee on Operating Room Safety. Masui 2001; 50: 1260-74.
34. Kawashima Y, Seo N, Morita K et al. Annual study of anesthesia-related mortality and morbidity in the year 2000 in Japan: The outlines - Report of Japanese Society of Anesthesiologists Committee on Operating Room Safety. Masui 2002; 51: 1032-47.
35. Paramesh K, Dunkley C. Lessons from the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. Anaesthesia for the High Risk Patient. 2002: 41-9.
36. Clifton BS, Hotten WT. Deaths associated with anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1963; 35: 250-9.
37. Jin F, Chung F. Minimizing perioperative adverse events in the elderly. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2001; 87: 608-24.
38. NCEPOD. Then and Now. The 2000 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. London: NCEPOD, 2000.
39. Warner MA, Shields SE, Chute CG. Major morbidity and mortality within 1 month of ambulatory surgery and anesthesia. Journal of the American Medical Association 1993; 270: 1437-41.
40. Duncan PG, Cohen MM, Tweed WA et al. The Canadian four-centre study of anaesthestic outcomes. III. Are anaesthetic complications predictable in day surgical practice? Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1992; 39: 440-8.
41. Osborne GA, Rudkin GE. Outcome after day-care surgery in a major teaching hospital. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1993; 21: 822-7.
42. Chung F, Mezei G, Tong D. Adverse events in ambulatory surgery. A comparison between elderly and younger patients. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1999; 46: 309-32.
43. Natof HE. Complications associated with ambulatory surgery. Journal of the American Medical Association 1980; 244: 1116-18.
44. HMSO, TSO. Reports on Confidential Enquiries in to Maternal Deaths in England and Wales 1952-1984, United Kingdom 1985-1999. London: HMSO and TSO, 2002.
45. Rout C. Maternal mortality and anaesthesia in Africa: A South African perspective. International Journal of Obstetric Anaesthesia 2002; 11: 77-80.
46. UNICEF. The progress of nations: League tables of maternal death Available at: http://www.unicef.org/pon96/leag/wom.htm.
47. Pattinson B. Saving Mothers. Report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in South Africa 1998. Available at: http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/reports/mothers/contents.html
48. Pederson T, Eliasen K, Henriksen E. A prospective study of mortality associated with anaesthesia and surgery: Risk indicators of mortality in hospital. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1990; 34: 176-82.
49. Ackerman RJ, Vogel RL, Johnson LA, Ashley DW, Solis MM. Surgery in nonagenarians: Morbidity, mortality and functional outcome. Journal of Family Practice 1995; 40: 129-35.
50. Djokovic JL, Hedley-White J. Prediction of outcome of surgery and anaesthesia in patients over 80. Journal of the American Medical Association 1979; 242: 2301-6.
51. Hosking MP, Lobdell CM, Warner MA, Offord KP, Melton LJ. Anaesthesia for patients over 90 years of age. Outcomes after regional and general anaesthetic techniques for two common surgical procedures. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 142-7.
52. NCEPOD. London: NCEPOD, Extremes of Age. The 1999 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. 1999.
53. Van Der Walt J. Searching for the Holy Grail: Measuring risk in paediatric anaesthesia. Paediatric Anaesthesia 2001; 11: 637-41.
54. Cheney FW, Posner K, Caplan RA, Ward RJ. Standard of care and anaesthesia liability. Journal of the American Medical Association 1989; 261: 1599-603.
55. Bothner U, Georgieff M, Schwilk B. Building a large scale perioperative anaesthesia outcome tracking database: Methodology, implementation and experiences from one provider within the German quality project. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2000; 85: 271-80.
56. Cohen MM, Duncan PG, Pope WD, Wolkenstein C. A survey of 112 000 anaesthetics at one teaching hospital 1975-1983. Canadian Anaesthetic Society Journal 1986; 33: 22-31.
57. Cooper JB, Cullen DJ, Nemeskal R et al. Effects of information feedback and pulse oximetry on the incidence of anesthesia complications. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 686-94.
58. Zelcer J, Wells DG. Anaesthetic-related recovery room complications. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1987; 15: 168-74.
59. Hines R, Barash PG, Watrous G, O'Connor T. Complications occurring in the postanaesthesia care unit: A survey. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1992; 74: 503-9.
60. Moller JT, Pederson T, Rasmussen LS et al. Randomized evaluation of pulse oximetry in 20 802 patients: 1. Design, demography, pulse oximetry failure rate and overall complication rate. Anesthesiology 1993; 70: 135-40.
61. Rose DK, Cohen MM, Wigglesworth DF, De Boer DP. Critical respiratory events in the post anaesthesia care unit: Patient, surgical and anaesthetic factors. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 410-81.
62. Ouchterlony J, Arvidsson L, Sjostedt L, Svardsudd K. Peroperative and immediate postoperative adverse events in patients undergoing elective general and orthopaedic surgery. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1995; 39: 643-52.
63. Schwilk B, Muche R, Bothner U, Goertz A, Friesdorf W, Georgief M. Quality control in anesthesiology. Results of a prospective study following the recommendations of the German Society of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care. Anaesthesist 1995; 44: 242-9.
64. Hunter MJ, Molinaro AM. Morbidity and mortality with outpatient anesthesia: The experience of a residency training program. Journal of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery 1997; 55: 684-7; discussion 687-8.
65. Schwilk B, Muche R, Treiber H, Brinkmann A, Goergieff M, Bothner U. A cross-validated multifactorial index of perioperative risks in adults undergoing anaesthesia for non-cardiac surgery. Analysis of perioperative events in 26907 anaesthetic procedures. Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing 1998; 14: 283-94.
66. Chung F, Mezei G, Tong D. Adverse events in ambulatory surgery. A comparison between elderly and younger patients. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1999; 46: 309-32.
67. Fasting S, Gisvold SE. Serious intraoperative problems - A five year review of 83 844 anesthetics. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2002; 49: 545-53.
68. Gaba DM. Anaesthesiology as a model for patient safety in health care. British Medical Journal 2000; 320: 785-8.
69. Webb RC, Currie M, Morgan CA et al. The Australian Incident Monitoring Study: An analysis of 2000 incident reports. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 2002; 21: 520-8.
70. Pottecher T, Tiret L, Desmonts JM, Hatton F, Bilaine J, Otteni JC. Cardiac arrest related to anaesthesia: A prospective survey in France 1978-1982. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 1984; 1: 305-18.
71. Pederson T, Eliasen K, Henriksen E. A prospective study of risk factors and cardiopulmonary complications associated with anaesthesia and surgery: Risk indicators of cardiopulmonary morbidity. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1990; 34: 144-55.
72. Aubas S, Biboulet P, Daures JP, Cailar J. Incidence and etiology of cardiac arrest occurring during the preoperative period and in the recovery room. Apropos of 102 468 anaesthesia cases. Annales Francaises d'Anesthesie et de Reanimation 1991; 10: 436-42.
73. Keenan RL, Boyan CP. Decreasing frequency of anesthetic cardiac arrests. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1991; 3: 354-7.
74. Auroy Y, Narchi P, Messiah A, Litt L, Rouvier B, Samii K. Serious complications related to regional anaesthesia. Results of a prospective survey in France. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: 479-86.
75. Morray JP, Geiduschek JM, Ramamoorthy C et al. Anesthesia-related cardiac arrest in children: Initial findings of the Pediatric Perioperative Cardiac Arrest (POCA) Registry. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 6-14.
76. Biboulet P, Aubas P, Dubourdieu J, Rubenovitch J, Capdevila X, D'Athis F. Fatal and non-fatal cardiac arrests related to anesthesia. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2001; 48: 326-32.
77. Newland MC, Ellis SJ, Lydiatt CA et al. Anesthetic-related cardiac arrest and its mortality: A report covering 72,959 anesthetics over 10 years from a US teaching hospital. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 108-15.
78. Brooks-Brunn JA. Postoperative atelectasis and pneumonia. Heart and Lung 1995; 24 (2): 94-115.
79. Engleheardt T, Webster NR. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1999; 83: 453-60.
80. Olsson GL, Hallen B, Hambraeus-Jonzon K. Aspiration during anaesthesia. A computer-aided study of 185 358 anaesthetics. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1986; 30: 84-92.
81. Warner MA, Warner ME, Weber JG. Clinical significance of pulmonary aspiration during the perioperative period. Anesthesiology 1993; 78: 56-62.
82. Mellin-Olsen J, Fasting S, Gisvold SE. Routine preoperative gastric emptying is seldom indicated. A study of 85 594 anaesthetics with special focus on aspiration pneumonia. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 1184-8.
83. Phillips S, Daborn AK, Hatch DJ. Preoperative fasting for paediatric anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1994; 73: 529-36.
84. Borland LM, Sereika SM, Woelfel SK, Saitz EW, Carrilo PA, Motoyama EK. Pulmonary aspiration in pediatric patients during general anesthesia: Incidence and outcome. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1998; 19: 95-102.
85. Tiret L, Nivoche Y, Hatton F, Desmonts JM, Vourc'h G. Complications related to anaesthesia in infants and children. A prospective survey of 40 240 anaesthetics. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1988; 61: 263-9.
86. Dindelli M, La Rosa M, Rossi R. Incidence and complications of the aspiration of gastric contents syndrome during cesarean section in general anaesthesia. Annali Di Ostetricia, Ginecologica, Medicina Perinatale (Milano) 1992; 112: 376-84.
87. La Rosa M, Piva L, Dindelli M, Pagnoni B. Aspiration syndrome in Cesarean section. Our experience from 1980 to 1990. Minerva Anestesiologie 1992; 58: 1213-20.
88. Soreide E, Bjornestad E, Steen PA. An audit of perioperative aspiration pneumonitis in gynecological and obstetric patients. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 14-19.
89. Crosby ET, Cooper RM, Douglas MJ. The unanticipated difficult airway with recommendations for management. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1998; 45: 757-76.
90. Yentis SM, Brighouse D, May A, Bogod D, Elton C. Section 2 - Pregnancy. IV. Anaesthetic complications. In: WB Saunders, ed. Analgesia, Anaesthesia and Pregnancy - A Practical Guide. London: Harcourt, 2002.
91. Barnardo PD, Jenkins JG. Failed tracheal intubation in obstetrics: A 6-year review in a UK region. Anaesthesia 2000; 55: 690-4.
92. Harmer M. Difficult and failed intubation in obstetrics. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 1997; 6; 25-31.
93. Wroblewski F, La Due JS. Myocardial infarction adds a postoperative complication of major surgery. Journal of the American Medical Association 1952; 150: 1212-16.
94. Shah KB, Kleinman BS, Rao TLK et al. Angina and other risk factors in patients with cardiac diseases undergoing non-cardiac operations. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1990; 70: 240-7.
95. Rao TL, Jacobs KH, El-Etr AA. Reinfarction following anesthesia in patients with myocardial infarction. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: 499-505.
96. Goldman L, Caldera DL, Nussbaum SR. Multifactorial index of cardiac risk in non-cardiac surgical procedures. New England Journal of Medicine 1977; 297: 845-50.
97. Detsky AS, Abrams HB, Forbath N, Scott JG, Hillard JR. Cardiac assessment for patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery. A multifactorial clinical risk index. Archives of International Medicine 1986; 146: 2131-4.
98. Lee TH, Marcantonio ER, Mangione CM et al. Derivation and prospective validation of a simple index for prediction of cardiac risk of major noncardiac surgery. Circulation 1999; 100: 1043-9.
99. Boersma E, Poldermans D, Bax J et al. for the DECREASE Study Group. Predictors of cardiac events after major vascular surgery: Role of the clinical characteristics, dobutamine echocardiography, and beta-blocker therapy. Journal of the American Medical Association 2001; 285: 1865-73.
100. Eagle KA, Berger PB, Calkins H et al. ACC:AHA guideline update for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for non-cardiac surgery: A report of the American College of Cardiology: American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Update the 1996 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Non-Cardiac Surgery). Available at: http://www.acc.org/clinical/guidelines/perio/dirIndex.htm.
101. Scheer BV, Perel A, Pfeiffer UJ. Clinical review. Complications and risk factors of peripheral arterial catheters used for haemodynamic monitoring in anaesthesia and intensive care medicine. Critical Care 2002; 6: 199-204.
102. Matthews NT, Worthley UG. Immediate problems associated with infraclavicular subclavian catheterisation; A comparison between left and right sides. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1982; 10: 113-15.
103. Eerola R, Kaukinen L, Kaukinen L. Analysis of 13 800 subclavian vein catheterizations. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1985; 29: 193-7.
104. Kamlesh BS, Tadikonda LKR, Laughlin S, Adel AEE. A review of pulmonary artery catheterisations in 6245 patients. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 271-5.
105. Ruesch S, Walder B, Tramer MR. Complications of central venous catheters: Internal jugular versus subclavian access - A systematic review. Critical Care Medicine 2002; 30: 454-60.
106. Merrer J, De Jonghe B, Golliot F et al. and the French Catheter Study Group in Intensive Care. Complications of femoral and subclavian venous catheterization in critically ill patients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2001; 286: 700-7.
107. Randolph AG, Cook DJ, Gonzales CA, Pribble CG. Ultrasound guidance for placement of central venous catheters: A meta-analysis of the literature. Critical Care Medicine 1996; 24: 2053-8.
108. Driscoll EJ, Gelfman SS, Sweet JB, Butler DP, Wirdzck PR, Medlin T. Thrombophlebitis after intravenous use of anaesthesia and sedation: Its incidence and natural history. Journal of Oral Surgery 1979; 37: 809-15.
109. Schou Olesen A, Huttal MS, Hole P. Venous sequelae following the injection of etomidate or thiopentone IV. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1984; 56: 171-3.
110. Kortilla K, Aromaa U. Venous complications after intravenous injection of diazepam, flunitrazepam, thiopentone and etomidate. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1980; 24: 227-30.
111. Clarke RS. Adverse effects of intravenously administered drugs used in anaesthetic practice. Drugs 1981; 22: 26-41.
112. Moller JT, Cluitmans P, Rasmussen LS et al. Long-term postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly: ISPOCD 1 study. Lancet 1998; 351: 857-61.
113. Williams-Russo P, Sharrock NE, Mattis S, Szatrowski TP, Charlson ME. Cognitive effects after epidural vs. general anesthesia in older adults. A randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 1995; 274: 44-50.
114. Abildstrom H, Rentowl P, Hanning CD, Rasmussen H, Kristensen PA, Moller JT. Cognitive dysfunction 1-2 years after non-cardiac surgery in the elderly. ISPOCD group. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2000; 44: 1246-51.
115. O'Keefe ST, Chonchubhair AN. Post-operative delirium in the elderly. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1994; 73: 673-87.
116. Sharpe P, Hanning C. Neurological sequelae. In: Van Aken H, ed. Best Practice and Research Clinical Anaesthesiology, London: Bailliere Tindall, 1999: 451-63.
117. Dodds C, Allison J. Postoperative cognitive deficit in the elderly surgical patient. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1998; 81: 462.
118. Berggren D, Gustafson Y, Eriksson B et al. Postoperative confusion after anaesthesia in elderly patients with femoral neck fractures. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 497-504.
119. Hinton RC. Thrombosis and cerebrovascular disease. Medical Clinics of North America 1998; 82: 523-44.
120. Bernett HJM, Meldrum HE, Elisziw M. The appropriate use of carotid endarterectomy. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2002; 166: 1169-79.
121. European Carotid Surgery Trialists Group. Randomised trial of endarterectomy for recently symptomatic carotid stenosis: Final results of the MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST). Lancet 1998; 351: 1379-87.
122. Ferguson GG, Eliasziw M, Barr HWK et al. for the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial. Surgical results in 1415 patients. Stroke 1999; 30: 1751-8.
123. Taylor DW, Barnett HJM, Haynes RB et al. for the ASA and Carotid Endarterectomy (ACE) Trial Collaborators. Low-dose and high-dose acetylsalicyclic acid for patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy: A randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999; 353: 2179-84.
124. Hankey GJ, Warlow CP, Molyneux AJ. Complications of cerebral angiography for patients with mild carotid territory ischaemia being considered for carotid endarterectomy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1990; 53: 542-8.
125. Eliasziw M, Rankin RN, Fox AJ et al. for the NASCET Group. Accuracy and prognostic consequences of ultrasonography in identifying severe carotid artery stenosis. Stroke 1995; 26: 1747-52.
126. Klafta JM, Roizen MF. Current understanding of patients' attitudes toward and preparation for anaesthesia: A review. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1996; 83: 1314-21.
127. Heier T, Steen PA. Awareness in anaesthesia: Incidence, consequences and prevention. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 1073-86.
128. Schwender D, Klasing S, Daunderer M, Madler C, Poppel E, Peter K. Awareness during general anesthesia. Definition, incidence, clinical relevance, causes, avoidance and medicolegal aspects. Anaesthesist 1995; 44: 743-54.
129. Aitkenhead A. Awareness during anaesthesia: What should the patient be told? Anaesthesia 1990; 45: 351-2.
130. Sandin RH, Enlund G, Samuelsson P, Lennmarken C. Awareness during anaesthesia: A prospective case study. Lancet 2000; 355: 701-11.
131. Nordstrom O, Engstrom AM, Persson S, Sandin R. Incidence of awareness in total i.v. anaesthesia based on propofol, alfentanil and neuromuscular blockade. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1997; 41: 978-84.
132. Bergman IJ, Kluger MT, Short TG. Awareness during general anaesthesia. A review of 81 cases from the Anaesthetic Incident Monitoring Study. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 549-56.
133. Fisher MM, Baldo BA. The incidence and clinical features of anaphylactic reactions during anaesthesia in Australia. Annales Francaises d'Anesthesie et de Reanimation 1993; 12: 97-104.
134. Laxenaire MC. Epidemiologie des reactions anaphylactoides peranesthetiques. Quatrieme enquete multicentrique (Juillet 1994-Decembre 1996). Annales Francaises d'Anesthesie et de Reanimation 1999; 18: 796-809.
135. Laxenaire MC, Mertes PM. Anaphylaxis during anaesthesia. Results of a 2 year survey in France. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2001; 87: 549-58.
136. Warner ME, Fronapfel PJ, Hebl JR et al. Perioperative visual changes. Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 855-9.
137. Roth S, Thisted RA, Erickson JP, Black S, Schreider BD. Eye injuries after nonocular surgery. A study of 60,965 anesthetics from 1988 to 1992. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 1020-7.
138. Cucchiara RF, Black S. Corneal abrasion during anaesthesia and surgery. Anesthesiology 1988; 69: 878-9.
139. Wild WM, Posner KL, Caplan RA, Cheney FW. Eye injuries associated with anaesthesia. A Closed Claims analysis. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 204-8.
140. Warner ME, Warner ME,E Garrity JA, Mackenzie RA, Warner DO. The frequency of perioperative vision loss. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2001; 93: 1417-21.
141. Sweeney PJ, Breuer AC, Selhorst JB et al. Ischemic optic neuropathy: A complication of cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Neurology 1982; 32: 560-2.
142. Shaw PJ, Bates D, Cartlidge NEF et al. Neurologic and neuropsychological morbidity following major surgery: Comparison of coronary artery bypass and peripheral vascular surgery. Stroke 1987; 18: 700-7.
143. Evan KE, Tavill MA, Goldberg AN, Silverstein H. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss after general anaesthesia for nonotologic surgery. Laryngoscope 1997; 107: 747-52.
144. Gultekin S, Ozcan S. Does hearing loss after spinal anaesthesia differ between young and elderly patients? Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002; 94: 1318-20.
145. Lamberg T, Pitkanen MT, Marttila T, Rosenberg PH. Hearing loss after continuous or single shot spinal anaesthesia. Regional Anaesthesia 1997; 22: 539-42.
146. Chung F, Mezei G. Adverse outcomes in ambulatory anesthesia. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1999; 46: R18-R26.
147. Ogg TW. An assessment of postoperative outpatient cases. British Medical Journal 1972; 4: 573-5.
148. Tong D, Chung F, Mezei G. Which specific postoperative symptoms predict postoperative functional level in ambulatory patients? Anesthesiology 1997; 87: A37.
149. Swan BA, Maislin G, Traber KB. Symptom distress and functional status changes during the first seven days after ambulatory surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1998; 86: 739-45.
150. Wu CL, Berenholtz SM, Pronovost PJ, Fleisher LA. Systematic review and analysis of postdischarge symptoms after outpatient surgery. Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 994-1003.
151. Commission on the Provision of Surgical Services. Pain After Surgery. London: Royal Colleges of Surgeons and Anaesthetists, 1990.
152. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Practice Guidelines for the Management of Acute Pain in the Perioperative Setting. Park Ridge, Illinois, USA: USA, 1995.
153. Ready B, Oden R, Chandwick H et al. Development of an anesthesiology-based postoperative pain management service. Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 100-6.
154. Natinal Health, Medical Research Council. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1999.
155. Audit Commission. Anaesthesia Under Examination. London: Audit Commission, 1997.
156. Dolin SJ, Cashman JN, Bland JM. Effectiveness of acute postoperative pain management: 1. Evidence from published data. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2002; 89: 409-23.
157. Chung F, Ritchie E, Su J. Postoperative pain in ambulatory surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1997; 85: 808-16.
158. Chung F, Un V, Su J. Postoperative symptoms 24 hours after ambulatory anaesthesia. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1996; 43: 1121-7.
159. Scott NB, Hodson M. Public perceptions of postoperative pain and its relief. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 438-42.
160. Watcha MF, White PF. Postoperative nausea and vomiting. Its etiology, treatment and prevention. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 162-84.
161. Fortney JT, Gan TJ, Gracyk S et al. A comparison of the efficacy, safety, and patient satisfaction of ondansetron versus droperidol as antiemetics for elective outpatient surgical procedures. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1998; 86: 731-8.
162. Sinclair D, Chung F, Mezei G. Can postoperative nausea and vomiting be predicted? Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 109-18.
163. Sinclair D, Chung F, Mezei G. Relation of postoperative nausea and vomiting to the surgical procedure. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1998; 45: A25A.
164. Scuderi PE, James RL, Harris L, Mins GR. Antiemetic prophylaxis does not improve outcomes after outpatient surgery when compared to symptomatic treatment. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 360-71.
165. Chia YY, Kuo MC, Liu K, Sun GC, Hseih SW, Chow LH. Does postoperative pain induce emesis? Clinical Journal of Pain 2002; 18: 317-23.
166. Apfel CC, Greim CA, Haubitz I et al. The discriminating power of a risk score for postoperative vomiting in adults undergoing various types of surgery. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1998; 42: 502-9.
167. Tramer MR, Reynolds JM, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Efficacy, dose-response, and safety of ondansetron in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. A quantitative systematic review of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: 1277-89.
168. Tramer MR, Phillips C, Reynolds DJ, McQuay HJ, Moore RA. Cost-effectiveness of ondansetron for postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 226-34.
169. White PF, Watcha MF. Postoperative nausea and vomiting: Prophylaxis versus treatment. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1999; 89: 1337-9.
170. Fisher DM. Surrogate outcomes: Meaningful not! Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 355-6.
171. Higgins PP, Chung F, Mezei G. Postoperative sore throat after ambulatory surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2002; 88: 582-4.
172. Joshi GP, Inagaki Y, White PF. Use of the laryngeal mask as an alternative to the tracheal tube during ambulatory surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1997; 85: 573-7.
173. Kloub R. Sore throat following tracheal intubation. Middle East Journal of Anesthesiology 2001; 16: 29-40.
174. Splinter WM, Smallman B, Rhine EJ, Komocar L. Postoperative sore throat in children and the laryngeal mask airway. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1994; 41: 1081-3.
175. Dingley J, Whitehead MJ, Wareham J. A comparative study of the incidence of sore throat with the laryngeal mask airway. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 251-4.
176. Oczenski W, Krenn H, Dahaba AA et al. Complications following the use of the Combitube, tracheal tube and laryngeal mask airway. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 1161-5.
177. Christensen AM, Willemoes-Larsen H, Lundby L, Jakobsen KB. Postoperative throat complaints after tracheal intubation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1994; 73: 786-7.
178. Nikolajsen L, Larsen KM, Kierkegaard O. Effect of previous frequency of headache, duration of fasting and caffeine abstinence on perioperative headache. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1994; 72: 295-7.
179. Holte K, Kehlet H. Compensatory fluid administration for preoperative dehydration - Does it improve outcome? Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2002; 46: 1089-93.
180. Warner ME, Benenfeld SM, Warner MA, Schroeder DR, Maxson PM. Perianesthetic dental injuries: Frequency, outcomes, and risk factors. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 1302-5.
181. Burton JF, Baker AB. Dental damage during anaesthesia and surgery. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1987; 15: 262-8.
182. Fung BK, Chan MY. Incidence of oral tissue trauma after the administration of general anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiologica Sinica 2001; 39: 163-7.
183. Sawyer RJ, Richmond MN, Hickey JD, Jarratt JA. Peripheral nerve injuries associated with anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2000; 55: 980-91.
184. Dhuner KG. Nerve injuries following operations: Survey of cases during a 6 year period. Anesthesiology 1950; 11: 289-93.
185. Alvine FG, Schurrer ME. Postoperative ulnar nerve palsy. Are there predisposing factors? Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 1987; 69: 255-9.
186. Kroll DA, Caplan RA, Posner K, Ward RJ, Cheney FW. Nerve injury associated with anaesthesia. Anesthesiology 1990; 73: 202-7.
187. Warner MA, Warner DO, Matsumoto JY, Harper CM, Schroeder DR, Maxson PM. Ulnar neuropathy in surgical patients. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 54-9.
188. Faccenda KA, Finucane BT. Complications of regional anaesthesia. Incidence and prevention. Drug Safety 2001; 24: 413-42.
189. Dripps RD, Vandam LD. Long term follow up of patients who received 10 098 spinal anaesthetics. Journal of the American Medical Association 1954; 16: 1486-91.
190. Massey Dawkins CJ. An analysis of the complications of extradural and caudal block. Anaesthesia 1969; 24: 554-63.
191. Dahlgren N, Tornebrandt K. Neurological complications after anaesthesia. A follow up of 18 000 spinal and epidural anaesthetics performed over three years. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1995; 39: 872-80.
192. Tryba M. Epidural regional anaesthesia and low molecular heparin: Pro (German) Anaesthesia Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 1993; 28: 179-81.
193. Vandermeulen EP, Van Aken H, Vermylen J. Anticoagulants and spinal-epidural anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 79: 1165-77.
194. Tryba M, Wedel DJ. Central neuraxial block and low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin): Lessons learned from different dosage regimes in two continents. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1997; 41: 100-3.
195. Holtas S, Heiling M, Lonntoft M. Spontaneous spinal epidural haematoma findings at MR imaging and clinical correlation. Radiology 1996; 199: 179-81.
196. Thomas J, Paranjothy S, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Clinical Effectiveness Support Unit. The National Sentinel Caesarian Section Audit Report. London: RCOG Press, 2001. Available at:http://www.rcog.org.uk/effectiveness/nscs_audit.html
197. Loo CC, Dahlgren G, Irestedt L. Neurological complications in obstetric
198. Holdcroft A, Gibberd FB, Hargrove RL, Dawkins DF, Dellaportas CI. Neurological complications associated with pregnancy. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1995; 75: 522-6.
199. Paech MJ, Godkin R, Webster S. Complications of obstetric epidural analgesia and anaesthesia: A prospective analysis of 10 995 cases. International Journal of Obstetric Anaesthesia 1998; 7: 5-11.
200. Scott DB, Hibbard BM. Serious non-fatal complications associated with extradural block in obstetric practice. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1990; 64: 537-41.
201. Ong BY, Cohen MM, Esmail A et al. Paresthesia and motor dysfunction after labor and delivery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 18-22.
202. Scott DB, Tunstall ME. Serious complications associated with epidural: Spinal blockade in obstetrics: A two year prospective study. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 1995; 4: 133-9.
203. Phillips OC, Ebner H, Nelson AT, Black MH. Neurologic complications following spinal anesthesia with lidocaine: A prospective review of 10 440 cases. Anesthesiology 1969; 30: 284-9.
204. Crawford JS. Some maternal complications of epidural analgesia for labour. Anaesthesia 1985; 40: 1219-25.
205. Tarkkila P, Huhtala J, Tuominen M. Transient radicular irritation after spinal anaesthesia with hyperbaric 5% lignocaine. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1995; 74: 328-9.
206. Freedman K, Li D-K, Drasner K et al. and the Spinal Anaesthesia Study Group. Transient neurological symptoms after spinal anaesthesia. An epidemiological study in 1863 patients. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 633-41.
207. Pollock JE, Neal JM, Stephenson CA, Wiley CE. Prospective study of the incidence of transient radicular irritation in patients undergoing spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 1361-7.
208. Wang LP, Hauerberg J, Schmidt JF. Incidence of spinal epidural abscess after epidural analgesia. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 1928-36.
209. Kindler C, Seeberger M, Schneider M. Extradural abscess complicating lumbar extradural anaesthesia and analgesia in an obstetric patient. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 858-61.
210. Baker AS, Ojemann RG, Swantz MN et al. Spinal epidural abscess. New England Journal of Medicine 1975; 293: 463-8.
211. Toyama TM, Ranasinghe JS, Siddiqui MN, Steadman JL, Lai M. Incidence of post dural puncture headache and epidural blood patch following dural puncture with epidural needle in 15,411 obstetric patients in a large tertiary care teaching hospital. Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 100.
212. Halpern S, Preston R. Postdural puncture headache and spinal needle design. Metaanalyses. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 1376-83.
213. Hopkinson JM, Samaan AK, Russell IF, Birks RJS, Patrick MR. A comparative multicentre trial of spinal needles for Caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 998-1014.
214. Stride PC, Cooper GM. Dural taps revisited: A 20-year survey from Birmingham Maternity Hospital. Anaesthesia 1993; 48: 247-55.
215. Taivanen T, Pitkanen M, Tuominen M, Rosenberg PH. Efficacy of epidural blood patch for post-dural puncture headache. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1993; 37: 702-5.
216. Gleeson CM, Reynolds F. Accidental dural puncture rates in UK obstetric practice. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 1998; 7: 242-6.
217. Macarthur C, Lewis M, Knox EG. Accidental dural puncture in obstetric patients and long term symptoms. British Medical Journal 1993; 306: 883-5.
218. Jeskins GD, Moore PAS, Cooper GM, Lewis M. Long-term morbidity following dural puncture in an obstetric population. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 2001; 10: 17-24.
219. Patel M, Fernando R, Gill P et al. A prospective study of long term backache after child birth in primigravidae - The effect of ambulatory epidural analgesia during labour. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 1995; 4: 187.
220. Russell R, Dundas R, Reynolds F. Long term backache after childbirth: Prospective search for causative factors. British Medical Journal 1996; 312: 1384-8.
221. Breen TW, Ransil BJ, Groves PA et al. Factors associated with back pain after childbirth. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 29-34.
222. Brown EM, Elman DS. Postoperative backache. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1961; 40: 683-5.
223. Asantila R, Rosenber PH, Scheinn B. Comparison of different methods of postoperative analgesia after thoracotomy. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1986: 30: 421-5.
224. Breivik H, Hogstrom H, Niemi G et al. Safe and effective postoperative pain relief: Introduction and continuous quality improvement of comprehensive post-operative pain management programmes. Bailliere's Clinical Anaesthesiology 1995; 9: 423-60.
225. Liang C-C, Wong S-Y, Tsay PT et al. The effect of epidural analgesia on postpartum urinary retention in women who deliver vaginally. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia 2002; 11: 164-9.
226. Brown DL, Ransom DM, Hall JA et al. Regional anaesthesia and local anaesthesia induced systemic toxicity: Seizure frequency and accompanying cardiovascular changes. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1995; 81: 321-8.
227. Selander D, Edshage S, Wolf T. Paresthesiae or no paresthesiae? Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1979; 23: 27-33.
228. Brand L, Papper EM. A comparison of supraclavicular and axillary techniques for brachial plexus blocks. Anesthesiology 1961; 22: 226-9.
229. Hickey R, Garland TA, Ramamurthy S. Subclavian perivascular block: Influence of location of parasthesiae. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1989; 68: 767-71.
230. Hamilton RC. Retrobulbar haemorrhage after retrobulbar blocks. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 78: 608.
231. Edge KR, Nicoll JMV. Retrobulbar haemorrhage after 12 500 retrobulbar blocks. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1993; 76: 1019-22.
232. Hamilton RC. Brainstem anaesthesia as a complication of regional anaesthesia for ophthalmic surgery. Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology 1992; 27: 323-5.
233. Hamilton RC, Gimbel HV, Strunin L. Regional anaesthesia for 12 000 cataract extraction and intraocular lens implantation procedures. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1988; 35: 615-23.
234. Gillart T, Bazin JE, Montetagaud M, Bevillard F, Amara S, Schoeffler P. The effects of volume and speed of injection in peribulbar anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 486-91.
235. McLure HA, Rubin AP, Westcott M, Henderson H. A comparison of 1% ropivacaine with a mixture of 0.75% bupivacaine and 2% lignocaine for peribulbar anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 1178-82.
236. Sarvela PJ, Paloheimo MPJ, Nikki PH. Comparison of pH-adjusted bupivacaine 0.75% and a mixture of bupivacaine 0.75% and lidocaine 2%, both with hyaluronidase, in day case cataract surgery under regional anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 79: 35-9.
237. Alfidi R. Informed consent: A study of patient reaction. Journal of the American Medical Association 1971; 216: 1325-9.
238. Inglis S, Farnill D. The effects of providing preoperative statistical anaesthetic risk information. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1993; 21: 799-805.
239. Calman KC. Concern. Science and society and the communication of risk. British Medical Journal 1996; 313: 799-802.
240. Adams A. The meaning of risk. In: McConachie I, ed. Anaesthesia for the High Risk Patient. London: Greenwich Medical Media, 2002: 239-47.
241. Malenka DJ, Baron JA, Johansen S et al. The framing effect of relative and absolute risk. Journal of General International Medicine 1993; 8: 543-8.
242. Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry, July 2001. Learning from Bristol: The report of the public inquiry into children's heart surgery at the Bristol Royal Infirmary 1984-1995. Available at: http://www.bristol-inquiry.org.uk/final_report.
243. Edwards A, Elwyn G, Mulley A. Explaining risks: Turning numerical data into meaningful pictures. British Medical Journal 2002; 324: 827-30.
244. Calman KD, Royston HD. Risk language and dialects. British Medical Journal 1997; 315: 939-42.
245. BMA. Guide to Living with Risks. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1990.
246. Barclay P, Costigan S, Davies M. Lottery can be used to show risk (letter). British Medical Journal 1998; 316: 124.
247. Adams AM, Smith AF. Risk perception and communication: Recent developments and implications for anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2001; 56: 745-55.