Clinical review: The management of hypertensive crises

Critical Care

Volumn 7, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 374-384

  Varon, Joseph ^a   Marik, Paul E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

blockers; Aortic dissection; Calcium channel blockers; Fenoldopam; Hypertension; Hypertensive crises; Hypertensive encephalopathy; Labetalol; Nicardipine; Nitroprusside; Pregnancy

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 1 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; AMPHETAMINE DERIVATIVE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CLONIDINE; COCAINE; CYCLOSPORIN; DIHYDROPYRIDINE DERIVATIVE; DILTIAZEM; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DOPAMINE 1 RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ESMOLOL; FENOLDOPAM; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HYDRALAZINE; LABETALOL; LOOP DIURETIC AGENT; METOPROLOL; NICARDIPINE; NIFEDIPINE; NITROPRUSSIDE SODIUM; PHENCYCLIDINE; PHENTOLAMINE; THIOSULFATE; TRIMETAPHAN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASODILATOR AGENT; VERAPAMIL;

ACUTE DISEASE; ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; AORTA DISSECTING ANEURYSM; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ECLAMPSIA; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTENSION ENCEPHALOPATHY; HYPERTENSIVE CRISIS; HYPOTENSION; LUNG EDEMA; MEDICAL ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TACHYCARDIA; THROMBOTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA; TREATMENT PLANNING; UNITED STATES;

ACUTE DISEASE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INTENSIVE CARE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0141920367     PISSN: 13648535     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/cc2351     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Arch Intern Med 1997, 157:2413-2446.
2. Calhoun DA, Oparil S: Treatment of hypertensive crisis. N Engl J Med 1990, 323:1177-1183.
3. Gifford RW Jr: Management of hypertensive crises. JAMA 1991, 266:829-835.
4. Ferguson RK, Vlasses PH: Hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. JAMA 1986, 255:1607-1613.
5. Reuler JB, Magarian GJ: Hypertensive emergencies and urgencies: definition, recognition, and management. J Gen Intern Med 1988, 3:64-74.
6. Hickler RB: 'Hypertensive emergency': a useful diagnostic category. Am J Public Health 1988, 78:623-624.
7. Garcia JYJ, Vidt DG: Current management of hypertensive emergencies. Drugs 1987, 34:263-278.
8. Bertel O, Marx BE: Hypertensive emergencies. Nephron 1987, Suppl 1:51-56.
9. Bennett NM, Shea S: Hypertensive emergency: case criteria, sociodemographic profile, and previous care of 100 cases. Am J Public Health 1988, 78:636-640.
10. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT, Roccella EJ: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003, 289:2560-2572.
11. Rahn KH: How should we treat a hypertensive emergency? Am J Cardiol 1989, 63:48C-50C.
12. Kaplan NM: Treatment of hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Heart Dis Stroke 1992, 1:373-378.
13. Joint National Committee for the Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of high blood pressure: the 1984 Report. Arch Intern Med 1984, 114:1045-1057.
14. Halpern NA, Goldberg M, Neely C, Sladen RN, Goldberg JS, Floyd J, Gabrielson G, Greenstein RJ: Postoperative hypertension: a multicenter, prospective, randomized comparison between intravenous nicardipine and sodium nitroprusside. Crit Care Med 1992, 20:1637-1643.
15. Gal TJ, Cooperman LH: Hypertension in the immediate postoperative period. Br J Anaesth 1975, 47:70-74.
16. Goldman L, Caldera DL: Risks of general anesthesia and elective operation in the hypertensive patient. Anesthesiol 1979, 50:285-292.
17. Rey E, LeLorier J, Burgess E, Lange IR, Leduc L: Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 3. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ 1997, 157:1245-1254.
18. Glock JL, Morales WJ: Efficacy and safety of nifedipine versus magnesium sulfate in the management of preterm labor: a randomized study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993, 169:960-964.
19. Burt VL, Whelton P, Roccella EJ, Brown C, Cutler JA, Higgins M, Horan MJ, Labarthe D: Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population. Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991. Hypertension 1995, 25:305-313.
20. Dannenberg AL, Garrison RJ, Kannel WB: Incidence of hypertension in the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health 1988, 78:676-679.
21. Varon J, Marik PE: The diagnosis and management of hypertensive crises. Chest 2000, 118:214-227.
22. Kearse LA, Rosow C, Zaslavsky A, Connors P, Dershwitz M, Denman W: Bispectral analysis of the electroencephalogram predicts conscious processing of information during propofol sedation and hypnosis. Anesthesiol 1998, 88:25-34.
23. Burt VL, Cutler JA, Higgins M, Horan MJ, Labarthe D, Whelton P, Brown C, Roccella EJ: Trends in the prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the adult US population. Data from the health examination surveys, 1960 to 1991. Hypertension 1995, 26:60-69.
24. Haffner SM, Mitchell BD, Valdez RA, Hazuda HP, Morales PA, Stern MP: Eight-year incidence of hypertension in Mexican-Americans and non-Hispanic whites. The San Antonio Heart Study. Am J Hypertens 1992, 5:147-153.
25. Volhard F, Fahr T: Die brightsche Nierenkranbeit: Klinik, Pathologie und Atlas. Berlin: Springer; 1914.
26. Keith NM, Wagener HP, Barker NW: Some different types of essential hypertension: their course and prognosis. Am J Med Sci 1939, 197:332-343.
27. McRae RPJ, Liebson PR: Hypertensive crisis. Med Clin North Am 1986, 70:749-767.
28. Vidt DG: Current concepts in treatment of hypertensive emergencies. Am Heart J 1986, 111:220-225.
29. Laragh J: Laragh's lessons in pathophysiology and clinical pearls for treating hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2001, 14:837-854.
30. Smith CB, Flower LW, Reinhardt CE: Control of hypertensive emergencies. Postgrad Med 1911, 89:111-116.
31. Lip GY, Beevers M, Potter JF, Beevers DG: Malignant hypertension in the elderly. QJM 1995, 88:641-647.
32. Shea S, Misra D, Ehrlich MH, Field L, Francis CK: Predisposing factors for severe, uncontrolled hypertension in an inner-city minority population. N Engl J Med 1992, 327:776-781.
33. Tumlin JA, Dunbar LM, Oparil S, Buckalew V, Ram CV, Mathur V, Ellis D, McGuire D, Fellmann J, Luther RR: Fenoldopam, a dopamine agonist, for hypertensive emergency: a multicenter randomized trial. Fenoldopam Study Group. Acad Emerg Med 2000, 7:653-662.
34. National Center for Health Statistics: Vital and Health Statistics: Detailed Diagnoses and Procedures for Patients Discharged from Short-stay Hospitals: United States, 1983-1990. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 1997.
35. Halpern NA, Alicea M, Krakoff LR, Greenstein R: Postoperative hypertension: a prospective, placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind trial, with intravenous nicardipine hydrochloride. Angiology 1990, 41:992-1004.
36. Prys-Rroberts C: Anaesthesia and hypertension. Br J Anaesth 1984, 56:711-724.
37. Sibai BM: Preeclampsia-eclampsia. Curr Prob Obstet Gynecol Infert 1990, 13:3-45.
38. Yu SH, Whitworth JA, Kincaid-Smith PS: Malignant hypertension: aetiology and outcome in 83 patients. Clin Exp Hypertens 1986, 8:1211-1230.
39. Milne FJ, James SH, Veriava Y: Malignant hypertension and its renal complications in black South Africans. S Afr Med J 1989, 76:164-167.
40. Ault MJ, Ellrodt AG: Pathophysiological events leading to the end-organ effects of acute hypertension. Am J Emerg Med 1985, 3:10-15.
41. Wallach R, Karp RB, Reves JG, Oparil S, Smith LR, James TN: Pathogenesis of paroxysmal hypertension developing during and after coronary bypass surgery: a study of hemodynamic and humoral factors. Am J Cardiol 1980, 46:559-565.
42. Goldblatt H: Studies on experimental hypertension: Production of malignant phase of hypertension. J Exp Med 1938, 67: 809-826.
43. Stefansson B, Ricksten A, Rymo L, Aurell M, Herlitz H: Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism in malignant hypertension. Blood Pressure 2000, 9:104-109.
44. Montgomery HE, Kiernan LA, Whitworth CE, Fleming S, Unger T, Gohlke P, Mullins JJ, McEwan JR: Inhibition of tissue angiotensin converting enzyme activity prevents malignant hypertension in TGR(mREN2)27. J Hypertens 1998, 16:635-643.
45. Fleming S. Malignant hypertension: the role of the paracrine renin-angiotensin system. J Pathol 2000, 192:135-139.
46. Kohno M, Yokokawa K, Yasunari K, Kano H, Minami M, Ueda M, Tatsumi Y, Yoshikawa J: Renoprotective effects of a combined endothelin type A/type B receptor antagonist in experimental malignant hypertension. Metab Clin Exp 1997, 46:1032-1038.
47. Vacher E, Richer C, Cazaubon C, Fornes P, Nisato D, Giudicelli JF: Are vasopressin peripheral V1 receptors involved in the development of malignant hypertension and stroke in SHRSPs? Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1995, 9:469-478.
48. Hiwatari M, Abrahams JM, Saito T, Johnston CI: Contribution of vasopressin to the maintenance of blood pressure in deoxycorticosterone-salt induced malignant hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Sci 1986, 70:191-198.
49. Filep J, Frolich JC, Fejes-Toth G: Effect of vasopressin blockade on blood pressure in conscious rats with malignant two-kidney Goldblatt hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens 1985, 7: 1007-1014.
50. Prisant LM, Carr AA, Hawkins DW: Treating hypertensive emergencies. Controlled reduction of blood pressure and protection of target organs. Postgrad Med 1990, 93:92-96.
51. Ziegler MG: Advances in the acute therapy of hypertension. Crit Care Med 1992, 20:1630-1631.
52. Fromm RE, Varon J, Gibbs L: Congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema for the emergency physician. J Emerg Med 1995, 13:71-87.
53. Roberts JM, Redman CWG: Pre-eclampsia: more than pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1993, 341:1447-1454.
54. Cunningham FG, Lindheimer MD: Hypertension in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1992, 326:927-932.
55. Khan IA, Nair CK: Clinical, diagnostic, and management perspectives of aortic dissection. Chest 2002, 122:311-328.
56. Kouchoukos NT, Dougenis D: Surgery of the thoracic aorta. N Engl J Med 1997, 336:1876-1888.
57. Cohn LH: Aortic dissection: new aspects of diagnosis and treatment. Hosp Pract (Off Ed) 1994, 29:47-56.
58. Chen K, Varon J, Wenker OC, Judge DK, Fromm RE, Sternbach GL: Acute thoracic aortic dissection: the basics. J Emerg Med 1997, 15:859-867.
59. Bannan LT, Beevers DG, Wright N: ABC of blood pressure reduction. Emergency reduction, hypertension in pregnancy, and hypertension in the elderly. BMJ 1980, 281:1120-1122.
60. Bertel O, Marx BE, Conen D: Effects of antihypertensive treatment on cerebral perfusion. Am J Med 1987, 82:29-36.
61. Reed WG, Anderson RJ: Effects of rapid blood pressure reduction on cerebral blood flow. Am Heart J 1986, 111:226-228.
62. Strandgaard S, Olesen J, Skinhoj E, Lassen NA: Autoregulation of brain circulation in severe arterial hypertension. BMJ 1973, 1:507-510.
63. Emergency Cardiac Care Committee and Subcommittees, American Heart Association. Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care. Part IV, special resuscitation situations: stroke. JAMA 1992, 268:2242-2244.
64. Adams HP, Brott TG, Crowell RM, Furlan AJ, Gomez CR, Grotta J, Helason CM, Marler JR: Guidelines for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke. A statement for the healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the stroke council, American Hear Association. Circulation 1994, 90:1588-1601.
65. Semplicini A, Maresca A, Boscolo G, Sartori M, Rocchi R, Giantin V, Forte PL, Pessina AC: Hypertension in acute ischemic stroke: a compensatory mechanism or an additional damaging factor? Arch Intern Med 2003, 163:211-216.
66. Lavin P: Management of hypertension in patients with acute stroke. Arch Intern Med 1986, 146:66-68.
67. Hirschl MM: Guidelines for the drug treatment of hypertensive crises. Drugs 1995, 50:991-1000.
68. O'Connell J, Gray C: Treating hypertension after stroke. BMJ 1994, 308:1523-1524.
69. Oureshi AI, Bliwise DL, Bliwise NG, Akbar MS, Uzen G, Frankel MR: Rate of 24-hour blood pressure decline and mortality after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: A retrospective analysis with a random effects regression model. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:480-485.
70. Boldt J, Zickmann B, Rapin J, Hammermann H, Dapper F, Hempelmann G: Influence of volume replacement with different HES-solutions on microcirculatory blood flow in cardiac surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1994, 38:432-438.
71. Strauss R, Gavras I, Vlahakos D, Gavras H: Enalaprilat in hypertensive emergencies. J Clin Pharmacol 1986, 26:39-43.
72. Komsuoglu SS, Komsuoglu B, Ozmenoglu M, Ozcan C, Gurhan H: Oral nifedipine in the treatment of hypertensive crises in patients with hypertensive encephalopathy. Int J Cardiol 1992, 34:277-282.
73. DiPette DJ, Ferraro JC, Evans RR, Martin M: Enalaprilat, an intravenous angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, in hypertensive crises. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985, 38:199-204.
74. Angeli P, Chiesa M, Caregaro L, Merkel C, Sacerdoti D, Rondana M, Gatta A: Comparison of sublingual captopril and nifedipine in immediate treatment of hypertensive emergencies. A randomized, single-blind clinical trial. Arch Intern Med 1991, 151: 678-682.
75. Ceyhan B, Karaaslan Y, Caymaz O, Oto A, Oram E, Oram A, Ugurlu S: Comparison of sublingual captopril and sublingual nifedipine in hypertensive emergencies. Jpn J Pharmacol 1990, 52:189-193.
76. Hirschl MM, Binder M, Bur A, Herkner H, Woisetschlager C, Bieglmayer C, Laggner AN: Impact of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system on blood pressure response to intravenous enalaprilat in patients with hypertensive crises. J Hum Hypertens 1997, 11:177-183.
77. Gray RJ: Managing critically ill patients with esmolol. An ultra short-acting beta-adrenergic blocker. Chest 1988, 93:398-403.
78. Lowenthal DT, Porter RS, Saris SD, Bies CM, Slegowski MB, Staudacher A: Clinical pharmacology, pharmacodynamics and interactions with esmolol. Am J Cardiol 1985, 56:14F-18F.
79. Reynolds RD, Gorczynski RJ, Quon CY: Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of esmolol. J Clin Pharmacol 1986, Suppl A:A3-A14.
80. Balser JR, Martinez EA, Winters BD, Perdue PW, Clarke AW, Huang W, Tomaselli GF, Dorman T, Campbell K, Lipsett P, Breslow MJ, Rosenfeld BA: Beta-adrenergic blockade accelerates conversion of postoperative supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Anesthesiol 1998, 89:1052-1059.
81. Platia EV, Michelson EL, Porterfield JK, Das G: Esmolol versus verapamil in the acute treatment of atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol 1989, 63:925-929.
82. Stumpf JL: Drug therapy of hypertensive crises. Clin Pharm 1988, 7:582-591.
83. Smerling A, Gersony WM: Esmolol for severe hypertension following repair of aortic coarctation. Crit Care Med 1990, 18: 1288-1290.
84. Gray RJ, Bateman TM, Czer LS, Conklin C, Matloff JM: Use of esmolol in hypertension after cardiac surgery. Am J Cardiol 1985, 56:49F-56F.
85. Gray RJ, Bateman TM, Czer LS, Conklin C, Matloff JM: Comparison of esmolol and nitroprusside for acute post-cardiac surgical hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1987, 59:887-891.
86. Muzzi DA, Black S, Losasso TJ, Cucchiara. RF: Labetalol and esmolol in the control of hypertension after intracranial surgery. Anesth Analg 1990, 70:68-71.
87. Mooss AN, Hilleman DE, Mohiuddin SM, Hunter CB: Safety of esmolol in patients with acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic therapy who had relative contraindications to beta-blocker therapy. Ann Pharmacother 1994, 28:701-703.
88. Shi Y, Zalewski A, Bravette B, Maroko AR, Maroko PR: Selective dopamine-1 receptor agonist augments regional myocardial blood flow: comparison of fenoldopam and dopamine. Am Heart J 1992, 124:418-423.
89. Shusterman NH, Elliott WJ, White WB: Fenoldopam, but not nitroprusside, improves renal function in severely hypertensive patients with impaired renal function. Am Heart J 1993, 95:161-168.
90. Tiberi M, Caron MG: High agonist-independent activity is a distinguishing feature of the dopamine D1 B receptor subtype. J Biol Chem 1994, 269:27925-27931.
91. Bodmann KF, Troster S, Clemens R, Schuster HP: Hemodynamic profile of intravenous fenoldopam in patients with hypertensive crisis. Clin Invest 1993, 72:60-64.
92. Munger MA, Rutherford WF, Anderson L, Hakki AI, Gonzalez FM, Bednarczyk EM, Emmanuel G, Weed SG, Panacek EA, Green JA: Assessment of intravenous fenoldopam mesylate in the management of severe systemic hypertension. Crit Care Med 1990, 18:502-504.
93. White WB, Radford MJ, Gonzalez FM, Weed SG, McCabe EJ, Katz AM: Selective dopamine-1 agonist therapy in severe hypertension: effects of intravenous fenoldopam. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988, 11:1118-1123.
94. Elliott WJ, Weber RR, Nelson KS, Oliner CM, Fumo MT, Gretler DD, McCray GR, Murphy MB: Renal and hemodynamic effects of intravenous fenoldopam versus nitroprusside in severe hypertension. Circulation 1990, 81:970-977.
95. White WB, Halley SE: Comparative renal effects of intravenous administration of fenoldopam mesylate and sodium nitroprusside in patients with severe hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1989, 149:870-874.
96. Reisin E, Huth MM, Nguyen BP, Weed SG, Gonzalez FM: Intravenous fenoldopam versus sodium nitroprusside in patients with severe hypertension. Hypertension 1990, 15:159-162.
97. Lund-Johansen P: Pharmacology of combined alpha-beta-blockade. II. Haemodynamic effects of labetalol. Drugs 1984, Suppl 2:35-50.
98. Kanot J, Allonen H, Kleimola T, Mantyla. R: Pharmacokinetics of labetalol in healthy volunteers. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1981, 19:41-44.
99. Goldberg ME, Clark S, Joseph J, Moritz H, Maguire D, Seltzer JL, Turlapaty P: Nicardipine versus placebo for the treatment of postoperative hypertension. Am Heart J 1990, 119:446-450.
100. Pearce CJ, Wallin JD: Labetalol and other agents that block both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors. Cleve Clin J Med 1994, 61:59-69.
101. Wallin JD: Adrenoreceptors and renal function. J Clin Hypertens 1985, 1:171-178.
102. Marx PG, Reid DS: Labetalol infusion in acute myocardial infarction with systemic hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1979, Suppl 2:233S-238S.
103. Olsen KS, Svendsen LB, Larsen FS, Paulson OB: Effect of labetalol on cerebral blood flow, oxygen metabolism and autoregulation in healthy humans. Br J Anaesth 1995, 75:51-54.
104. Rosei EA, Trust PM, Brown JJ: Intravenous labetalol in severe hypertension. Lancet 1975, 2:1093-1094.
105. Turlapaty P, Vary R, Kaplan JA: Nicardipine, a new intravenous calcium antagonist: a review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and perioperative applications. J Cardiothorac Anesth 1989, 3:344-355.
106. IV Nicardipine Study Group: Efficacy and safety of intravenous nicardipine in the control of postperative hypertension. Chest 1991, 99:393-398.
107. Sabbatini M, Strocchi P, Amenta F: Nicardipine and treatment of cerebrovascular diseases with particular reference to hypertension-related disorders. Clin Exp Hypertens 1995, 17:719-750.
108. Schillinger D: Nifedipine in hypertensive emergencies: a prospective study. J Emerg Med 1987, 5:463-473.
109. Francis GS: Vasodilators in the intensive care unit. Am Heart J 1991, 121:1875-1878.
110. Friederich JA, Butterworth JF: Sodium nitroprusside: twenty years and counting. Anesth Analg 1995, 81:152-162.
111. Fung HL: Clinical pharmacology of organic nitrates. Am J Cardiol 1993, 72:9C-13C.
112. Pasch T, Schulz V, Hoppenshauser G: Nitroprusside-induced formation of cyanide and its detoxication with thiosulphate during deliberate hypotension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1983, 5:77-85.
113. Robin ED, McCauley R: Nitroprusside-related cyanide poisoning. Time (long past due) for urgent, effective interventions. Chest 1992, 102:1842-1845.
114. Hartmann A, Buttinger C, Rommel T, Czernicki Z, Trtinjiak F: Alteration of intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow, autoregulation and carbondioxide-reactivity by hypotensive agents in baboons with intracranial hypertension. Neurochirurgia 1989, 32:37-43.
115. Kondo T, Brock M, Bach H: Effect of intra-arterial sodium nitroprusside on intracranial pressure and cerebral autoregulation. Jpn Heart J 1984, 25:231-237.
116. Griswold WR, Reznik V, Mendoza SA: Nitroprusside-induced intracranial hypertension [letter]. JAMA 1981, 246:2679-2680.
117. Anile C, Zanghi F, Bracali A, Maira. G, Rossi GF: Sodium nitroprusside and intracranial pressure. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1981, 58:203-211.
118. Murphy C: Hypertensive emergencies. Emerg Med Clin N Am 1995, 13:973-1007.
119. Mann T, Cohn PF, Holman LB, Green LH, Markis JE, Phillips DA: Effect of nitroprusside on regional myocardial blood flow in coronary artery disease. Results in 25 patients and comparison with nitroglycerin. Circulation 1978, 57:732-738.
120. Cohn A Franciosa A Francis GS, Archibald D, Tristani F, Fletcher R, Montero A, Cintron G, Clarke J, Hager D, Saunders R, Cobb F, Smith R, Loeb H, Settle H: Effect of short-term infusion of sodium nitroprusside on mortality rate in acute myocardial infarction complicated by left ventricular failure: results of a Veterans Administration cooperative study. N Engl J Med 1982, 306:1129-1135.
121. Hall VA, Guest JM: Sodium nitroprusside-induced cyanide intoxication and prevention with sodium thiosulphate prophylaxis. Am J Crit Care 1992, 2:19-27.
122. Niknahad H, O'Brien PJ: Involvement of nitric oxide in nitroprusside-induced hepatocyte cytotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol 1996, 51:1031-1039.
123. Izumi Y, Benz AM, Clifford DB, Zorumski CF: Neurotoxic effects of sodium nitroprusside in rat hippocampal slices. Exp Neurol 1993, 121:14-23.
124. Vesey CJ, Cole PV, Simpson PJ: Cyanide and thiocyanate concentrations following sodium nitroprusside infusion in man. Br J Anaesth 1976, 48:651-659.
125. Nakamura Y, Yasuda M, Fujimori H, Kiyono M, Pan-Hou H: Cytotoxic effect of sodium nitroprusside on PC12 cells. Chemosphere 1997, 34:317-324.
126. Gobbel GT, Chan TY, Chan PH: Nitric oxide- and superoxide-mediated toxicity in cerebral endothelial cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997, 282:1600-1607.
127. Rauhala P, Khaldi A, Mohanakumar KP, Chiueh CC: Apparent role of hydroxyl radicals in oxidative brain injury induced by sodium nitroprusside. Free Radic Biol Med 1998, 24:1065-1073.
128. Khot UN, Novaro GM, Popovic ZB, Mills RM, Thomas JD, Tuzcu EM, Hammer D, Nissen SE, Francis GS: Nitroprusside in critically ill patients with left ventricular dysfucntion and aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:1756-1763.
129. Huysmans FT, Sluiter HE, Thien TA, Koene RA: Acute treatment of hypertenisve crisis with nifedipine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983, 16:725-727.
130. Spah F, Grosser KD: Treatment of hypertensive urgencies and emergencies with nitrendipine, nifedipine, and clonidine: effect on blood pressure and heart rate. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1988, Suppl 4:S154-S156.
131. Gonzalez-Carmona VM, Ibarra-Perez C, Jerjes-Sanchez C: Single-dose sublingual nifedipine as the only treatment in hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. Angiology 1991, 42: 908-913.
132. Diker E, Erturk S, Akgun G: Is sublingual nifedipine administration superior to oral administration in the active treatment of hypertension? Angiology 1992, 43:477-481.
133. Haft JI, Litterer WE: Chewing nifedipine to rapidly treat hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1984, 144:2357-2359.
134. Puri GD, Batra YK, Singh H: Efficacy of sublingual nifedipine in the relief of immediate post-opertive hypertension. Indian J Med Res 1987, 86:624-628.
135. Wu SG, Lin SL, Shiao WY, Huang HW, Lin CF, Yang YH: Comparison of sublingual captopril, nifedipine and prazosin in hypertensive emergencies during hemodialysis. Nephron 1993, 65:284-287.
136. Glock JL, Morales WJ: Efficacy and safety of nifedipine versus magnesium sulphate in the management of preterm labor: a randomized study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993, 169:960-964.
137. van Harten J, Burggraaf K, Danhof M, van Brummelen P, Breimer DD: Negligible sublingual absorption of nifedipine. Lancet 1987, 2:1363-1365.
138. Grossman E, Messerli FH, Grodzicki T, Kowey P: Should a moratorium be placed on sublingual nifedipine capsules given for hypertensive emergencies and pseudoemergencies? JAMA 1996, 276:1328-1331.
139. Woodmansey P, Channer KS: Nifedipine and hypotension [letter]. Lancet 1991, 338:763-764.
140. Peters FP, de Zwaan C, Kho L: Prolonged QT interval and ventricular fibrillation after treatment with sublingual nifedipine for malignant hypertension [letter]. Arch Intern Med 1997, 157: 2665-2666.
141. Levy JH: Treatment of perloperative hypertension. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 1999, 17:569-570.
142. Bussmann WD, Kenedi P, von Mengden HJ, Nast HP, Rachor L: Comparison of nitroglycerin with nifedipine in patients with hypertensive crisis or severe hypertension. Clin Investig 1992, 70:1085-1088.
143. Schroeder HA: Effects on hypertension of sulfhydryl and hydrazine compounds. J Clin Invest 1951, 30:672-673.
144. Shepherd AM, Ludden TM, McNay JL, Lin MS: Hydralazine kinetics after single and repeated oral doses. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980, 28:804-811.
145. O'Malley K, segal JL, Israili ZH, Boles M, McNay JL, Dayton PG: Duration of hydralazine action in hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975, 18:581-586.
146. Reece PA, Cozamanis I, Zacest R: Kinetics of hydralazine and its main metabolites in slow and fast acetylators. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980, 28:769-778.
147. Ludden TM, Shepherd AM, McNay JL, Lin MS: Hydralazine kinetics in hypertensive patients after intravenous administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980, 28:736-742.
148. Moore-Jones D, Perry HM Jr: Radioautographic localization of hydralazine-1-C-14 in arterial walls. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1966, 122:576-579.