From Propagation to Structure: The Experimental Technique of Bombardment as a Contributing Factor to the Emerging Quantum Physics

Physics in Perspective

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 150-173

  Hon, Giora ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

Author keywords

Bombardment; Elastic and inelastic collisions; Ernest Rutherford; Excitation; Experimentation; Franck Hertz experiment; Gustav Hertz; Heinrich Hertz; Ionization; James Franck; Niels Bohr; Philipp Lenard; Propagation; Rutherford atom; Structure

Indexed keywords

EID: 0141680830     PISSN: 14226944     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00016-003-0124-8     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. On experiment as a form of argument see Giora Hon, '"If This Be Error': Probing Experiment With Error," in Michael Heidelberger and Friedrich Steinle, eds., Experimental Essays - Versuche zum Experiment (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1998), pp. 227-248.
2. Ibid., pp. 239-240. A. Peres, "Axiomatic Quantum Phenomenology," in P. Lahti, and P. Mittelstaedt, eds., Symposium on the Foundations of Modern Physics, 1990 (Singapore: World Scientific, 1990), pp. 317-331, on pp. 317-19.
3. Ibid., pp. 239-240. A. Peres, "Axiomatic Quantum Phenomenology," in P. Lahti, and P. Mittelstaedt, eds., Symposium on the Foundations of Modern Physics, 1990 (Singapore: World Scientific, 1990), pp. 317-331, on pp. 317-19.
4. Rom Harré, for example, rests his classification of experiments on the basis of their differently assigned goals, such as the formal aspects of the method involved (e.g., finding the form of a law inductively), developing the content of a theory (e.g., finding the hidden mechanism of a known effect) and technique (e.g., the power and versatility of apparatus). See R. Harré, Great Scientific Experiments (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
5. Ernst Mach, Knowledge and Error [1905] (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1976), p. 157 (my emphasis).
6. Allan Franklin, Experiment, Right or Wrong (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 104. For a critique of Franklin's position and an attempt to transcend his list see, Giora Hon, "The Idols of Experiment: Transcending the "'Etc.' List"," in Hans Radder, ed., Scientific Experimentation and its Philosophical Significance (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, forthcoming).
7. Allan Franklin, Experiment, Right or Wrong (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 104. For a critique of Franklin's position and an attempt to transcend his list see, Giora Hon, "The Idols of Experiment: Transcending the "'Etc.' List"," in Hans Radder, ed., Scientific Experimentation and its Philosophical Significance (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, forthcoming).
8. Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p. xix. See also Peter Galison, How Experiments End (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
9. Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p. xix. See also Peter Galison, How Experiments End (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
10. Galison, Image and Logic, p. xix.
11. Peter Galison, "Pure and Hybrid Detectors: Mark I and the Psi, " in Lillian Hoddeson, Laurie Brown, Michael Riordan, and Max Dresden, ed., The Rise of the Standard Model: Particle Physics in the 1960s and 1970s (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 308-337, on p. 333.
12. Dieter Hoffmann, "On the Experimental Context of Planck's Foundation of Quantum Theory," in Jochen Büttner, Olivier Darrigol, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, and Matthias Schemmel, Revisiting the Quantum Discontinuity (Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte Preprint 150, 2000), pp. 47-68. Erwin Schrödinger distinguishes between experiments concerning the state of the system and those concerned with the nature of the system. He calls the former Newtonian and the latter Keplerian. This characterization moves towards the distinction that I develop in the present paper between the experimental methods of propagation and bombardment. See Erwin Schrödinger, "The Philosophy of Experiment [1954]" in his Collected Papers (Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences, 1984), Vol. 4. General Scientific and Popular Papers, pp. 558-568.
13. Dieter Hoffmann, "On the Experimental Context of Planck's Foundation of Quantum Theory," in Jochen Büttner, Olivier Darrigol, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, and Matthias Schemmel, Revisiting the Quantum Discontinuity (Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte Preprint 150, 2000), pp. 47-68. Erwin Schrödinger distinguishes between experiments concerning the state of the system and those concerned with the nature of the system. He calls the former Newtonian and the latter Keplerian. This characterization moves towards the distinction that I develop in the present paper between the experimental methods of propagation and bombardment. See Erwin Schrödinger, "The Philosophy of Experiment [1954]" in his Collected Papers (Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences, 1984), Vol. 4. General Scientific and Popular Papers, pp. 558-568.
14. E. Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves and some of its Applications," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [A] 189 (1899), 1-24; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol 1. New Zealand-Cambridge-Montreal (London: Allen and Unwin, 1962), pp. 80-104. E. N. da C. Andrade, Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom (New York: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 20-21, 27-28. For a study of Hertz's position as the culmination of nineteenth-century physics and the emerging new experimental work of Rutherford, see Giora Hon, "Hertz's Study of Propagation vs. Rutherford's Study of Structure: Two Modes of Experimentation and Their Theoretical Underpinnings," in Davis Baird, R. I. G. Hughes and Alfred Nordmann, eds., Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), pp. 59-72.
15. E. Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves and some of its Applications," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [A] 189 (1899), 1-24; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol 1. New Zealand-Cambridge-Montreal (London: Allen and Unwin, 1962), pp. 80-104. E. N. da C. Andrade, Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom (New York: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 20-21, 27-28. For a study of Hertz's position as the culmination of nineteenth-century physics and the emerging new experimental work of Rutherford, see Giora Hon, "Hertz's Study of Propagation vs. Rutherford's Study of Structure: Two Modes of Experimentation and Their Theoretical Underpinnings," in Davis Baird, R. I. G. Hughes and Alfred Nordmann, eds., Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), pp. 59-72.
16. E. Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves and some of its Applications," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [A] 189 (1899), 1-24; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol 1. New Zealand-Cambridge-Montreal (London: Allen and Unwin, 1962), pp. 80-104. E. N. da C. Andrade, Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom (New York: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 20-21, 27-28. For a study of Hertz's position as the culmination of nineteenth-century physics and the emerging new experimental work of Rutherford, see Giora Hon, "Hertz's Study of Propagation vs. Rutherford's Study of Structure: Two Modes of Experimentation and Their Theoretical Underpinnings," in Davis Baird, R. I. G. Hughes and Alfred Nordmann, eds., Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), pp. 59-72.
17. E. Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves and some of its Applications," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society [A] 189 (1899), 1-24; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol 1. New Zealand-Cambridge-Montreal (London: Allen and Unwin, 1962), pp. 80-104. E. N. da C. Andrade, Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom (New York: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 20-21, 27-28. For a study of Hertz's position as the culmination of nineteenth-century physics and the emerging new experimental work of Rutherford, see Giora Hon, "Hertz's Study of Propagation vs. Rutherford's Study of Structure: Two Modes of Experimentation and Their Theoretical Underpinnings," in Davis Baird, R. I. G. Hughes and Alfred Nordmann, eds., Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), pp. 59-72.
18. J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the Passage of Electricity through Gases Exposed to Röntgen Rays," Philosophical Magazine 42 (1896), 392-407; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 105-131.
19. J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the Passage of Electricity through Gases Exposed to Röntgen Rays," Philosophical Magazine 42 (1896), 392-407; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 105-131.
20. E. V. Appleton, "The Young Rutherford," in Rutherford, Collected Papers, Vol. 1, p. 19.
21. Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), p. 38. On the presentation of this paper at the 1896 meeting of the British Association, see Per F. Dahl, Flash of the Cathode Rays (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1997), pp. 136-139.
22. Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), p. 38. On the presentation of this paper at the 1896 meeting of the British Association, see Per F. Dahl, Flash of the Cathode Rays (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1997), pp. 136-139.
23. Thomson and Rutherford, "Passage of Electricity" (ref. 11), pp. 106-107.
24. Appleton, "Young Rutherford" (ref. 12), p. 20.
25. J. J. Thomson, "Note on the Preceding Paper" ["Passage of Electricity" (ref. 11)], p. 131.
26. Appleton, "Young Rutherford" (ref. 12), p. 21.
27. Thomson and Rutherford, "Passage of Electricity" (ref. 11), p. 107.
28. E. Rutherford, "Some Remarks on Radioactivity," Phil. Mag. 5 (1903), 481-485; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 576-579, on p. 579.
29. E. Rutherford, "Some Remarks on Radioactivity," Phil. Mag. 5 (1903), 481-485; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 576-579, on p. 579.
30. E. Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from Radium and Actinium," Phil. Mag., 12 (1906), 348-371; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 880-900, on p. 897. For a succinct overview of the difficulties in determining the nature of α and β particles, see John L. Heilbron, "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles and Rutherford's Atom," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4 (1968), 247-307, on 280-281; reprinted in Historical Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure (New York: Arno Press, 1981), pp. 85-145, on pp. 118-119. For detailed analyses and assessments of Rutherford's work at McGill see Mario Bunge and William R. Shea, ed., Rutherford and Physics at the Turn of the Century (New York: Dawson and Science History Publications, 1979).
31. E. Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from Radium and Actinium," Phil. Mag., 12 (1906), 348-371; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 880-900, on p. 897. For a succinct overview of the difficulties in determining the nature of α and β particles, see John L. Heilbron, "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles and Rutherford's Atom," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4 (1968), 247-307, on 280-281; reprinted in Historical Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure (New York: Arno Press, 1981), pp. 85-145, on pp. 118-119. For detailed analyses and assessments of Rutherford's work at McGill see Mario Bunge and William R. Shea, ed., Rutherford and Physics at the Turn of the Century (New York: Dawson and Science History Publications, 1979).
32. E. Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from Radium and Actinium," Phil. Mag., 12 (1906), 348-371; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 880-900, on p. 897. For a succinct overview of the difficulties in determining the nature of α and β particles, see John L. Heilbron, "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles and Rutherford's Atom," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4 (1968), 247-307, on 280-281; reprinted in Historical Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure (New York: Arno Press, 1981), pp. 85-145, on pp. 118-119. For detailed analyses and assessments of Rutherford's work at McGill see Mario Bunge and William R. Shea, ed., Rutherford and Physics at the Turn of the Century (New York: Dawson and Science History Publications, 1979).
33. E. Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from Radium and Actinium," Phil. Mag., 12 (1906), 348-371; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 880-900, on p. 897. For a succinct overview of the difficulties in determining the nature of α and β particles, see John L. Heilbron, "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles and Rutherford's Atom," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4 (1968), 247-307, on 280-281; reprinted in Historical Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure (New York: Arno Press, 1981), pp. 85-145, on pp. 118-119. For detailed analyses and assessments of Rutherford's work at McGill see Mario Bunge and William R. Shea, ed., Rutherford and Physics at the Turn of the Century (New York: Dawson and Science History Publications, 1979).
34. E. Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from Radium and Actinium," Phil. Mag., 12 (1906), 348-371; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 880-900, on p. 897. For a succinct overview of the difficulties in determining the nature of α and β particles, see John L. Heilbron, "The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles and Rutherford's Atom," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4 (1968), 247-307, on 280-281; reprinted in Historical Studies in the Theory of Atomic Structure (New York: Arno Press, 1981), pp. 85-145, on pp. 118-119. For detailed analyses and assessments of Rutherford's work at McGill see Mario Bunge and William R. Shea, ed., Rutherford and Physics at the Turn of the Century (New York: Dawson and Science History Publications, 1979).
35. E. Rutherford, "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in Passing Through Matter," Phil. Mag. 12 (1906), 134-146; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 859-869, on p. 867.
36. E. Rutherford, "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in Passing Through Matter," Phil. Mag. 12 (1906), 134-146; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 1, pp. 859-869, on p. 867.
37. Ibid. See also Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 99-103.
38. Ibid. See also Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 99-103.
39. I b i d.
40. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "On a Diffuse Reflection of the α-Particles," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London [A] 82 (1909), 495-500, on 495; reprinted in J. B. Birks, ed., Rutherford at Manchester (New York: W. A. Benjamin, 1963), pp. 175-181, on p. 175.
41. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "On a Diffuse Reflection of the α-Particles," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London [A] 82 (1909), 495-500, on 495; reprinted in J. B. Birks, ed., Rutherford at Manchester (New York: W. A. Benjamin, 1963), pp. 175-181, on p. 175.
42. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "The Laws of Deflexion of α Particles through Large Angles," Phil. Mag. 25 (1913), 604-623, on p. 605 (my emphasis); reprinted in Birks, Rutherford at Manchester, pp. 205-227, on p. 206.
43. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "The Laws of Deflexion of α Particles through Large Angles," Phil. Mag. 25 (1913), 604-623, on p. 605 (my emphasis); reprinted in Birks, Rutherford at Manchester, pp. 205-227, on p. 206.
44. Quoted in Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 186. The source of this quotation is probably Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 111-112. For a sober view of this claim see, Alfred Romer, "Proton or Prouton?: Rutherford and the Depths of the Atom," American Journal of Physics 65 (1997), 707-716, on 708 (footnotes 19-22); Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 102-103; and Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 335-337.
45. Quoted in Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 186. The source of this quotation is probably Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 111-112. For a sober view of this claim see, Alfred Romer, "Proton or Prouton?: Rutherford and the Depths of the Atom," American Journal of Physics 65 (1997), 707-716, on 708 (footnotes 19-22); Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 102-103; and Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 335-337.
46. Quoted in Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 186. The source of this quotation is probably Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 111-112. For a sober view of this claim see, Alfred Romer, "Proton or Prouton?: Rutherford and the Depths of the Atom," American Journal of Physics 65 (1997), 707-716, on 708 (footnotes 19-22); Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 102-103; and Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 335-337.
47. Quoted in Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 186. The source of this quotation is probably Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 111-112. For a sober view of this claim see, Alfred Romer, "Proton or Prouton?: Rutherford and the Depths of the Atom," American Journal of Physics 65 (1997), 707-716, on 708 (footnotes 19-22); Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 102-103; and Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 335-337.
48. Quoted in Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 186. The source of this quotation is probably Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 111-112. For a sober view of this claim see, Alfred Romer, "Proton or Prouton?: Rutherford and the Depths of the Atom," American Journal of Physics 65 (1997), 707-716, on 708 (footnotes 19-22); Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 102-103; and Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 335-337.
49. E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 21 (1911), 669-688; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol 2. Manchester (London: Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 238-254, on 238. For an assessment of this paper see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 135-138.
50. E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 21 (1911), 669-688; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol 2. Manchester (London: Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 238-254, on 238. For an assessment of this paper see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 135-138.
51. E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 21 (1911), 669-688; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol 2. Manchester (London: Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 238-254, on 238. For an assessment of this paper see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 135-138.
52. Heilbron has called Rutherford's experimental and theoretical scheme the "Manchester Approach." See Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 86, 119-123; on J. J. Thomson's multiple-scattering theory and its alleged experimental underpinning, see ibid., pp. 107-118. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), Ch. 17: "Dawning of the Atomic Age."
53. Heilbron has called Rutherford's experimental and theoretical scheme the "Manchester Approach." See Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 86, 119-123; on J. J. Thomson's multiple-scattering theory and its alleged experimental underpinning, see ibid., pp. 107-118. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), Ch. 17: "Dawning of the Atomic Age."
54. Heilbron has called Rutherford's experimental and theoretical scheme the "Manchester Approach." See Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 86, 119-123; on J. J. Thomson's multiple-scattering theory and its alleged experimental underpinning, see ibid., pp. 107-118. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), Ch. 17: "Dawning of the Atomic Age."
55. E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of the α and β Rays and the Structure of the Atom," Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society 4, 55 (1911), 18-20; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2, pp. 212-213. on p. 212.
56. E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of the α and β Rays and the Structure of the Atom," Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society 4, 55 (1911), 18-20; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2, pp. 212-213. on p. 212.
57. Rutherford, "Scattering" (ref. 27), p. 239.
58. Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 27 (1914), 448-498; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), pp. 423-431, on 423; Geiger and Marsden, "Laws of Deflexion" (ref. 25), p. 606. George P. Thomson, The Inspiration of Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 48-52. For a philosophical reflection, see Friedel Weinert, "The Construction of Atom Models: Eliminative Inductivism and its Relation to Falsificationism," Foundations of Science 5 (2000), 491-531.
59. Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 27 (1914), 448-498; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), pp. 423-431, on 423; Geiger and Marsden, "Laws of Deflexion" (ref. 25), p. 606. George P. Thomson, The Inspiration of Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 48-52. For a philosophical reflection, see Friedel Weinert, "The Construction of Atom Models: Eliminative Inductivism and its Relation to Falsificationism," Foundations of Science 5 (2000), 491-531.
60. Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 27 (1914), 448-498; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), pp. 423-431, on 423; Geiger and Marsden, "Laws of Deflexion" (ref. 25), p. 606. George P. Thomson, The Inspiration of Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 48-52. For a philosophical reflection, see Friedel Weinert, "The Construction of Atom Models: Eliminative Inductivism and its Relation to Falsificationism," Foundations of Science 5 (2000), 491-531.
61. Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 27 (1914), 448-498; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), pp. 423-431, on 423; Geiger and Marsden, "Laws of Deflexion" (ref. 25), p. 606. George P. Thomson, The Inspiration of Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 48-52. For a philosophical reflection, see Friedel Weinert, "The Construction of Atom Models: Eliminative Inductivism and its Relation to Falsificationism," Foundations of Science 5 (2000), 491-531.
62. Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag. 27 (1914), 448-498; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), pp. 423-431, on 423; Geiger and Marsden, "Laws of Deflexion" (ref. 25), p. 606. George P. Thomson, The Inspiration of Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 48-52. For a philosophical reflection, see Friedel Weinert, "The Construction of Atom Models: Eliminative Inductivism and its Relation to Falsificationism," Foundations of Science 5 (2000), 491-531.
63. N. Feather, "Rutherford at Manchester: an epoch in physics," in Rutherford, Collected Papers, Vol. 2 (ref. 27), p. 23.
64. Quoted in Feather, "Rutherford at Manchester," p. 24. Niels Bohr, "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture 1958," in Finn Aaserud and David Favrholdt, eds., Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 10. Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928-1962) (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), pp. 383-420. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref, 13), pp. 345-354. On the reception of Rutherford's atomic model and the role that Bohr played in it, see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 35, 138-143.
65. Quoted in Feather, "Rutherford at Manchester," p. 24. Niels Bohr, "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture 1958," in Finn Aaserud and David Favrholdt, eds., Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 10. Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928-1962) (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), pp. 383-420. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref, 13), pp. 345-354. On the reception of Rutherford's atomic model and the role that Bohr played in it, see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 35, 138-143.
66. Quoted in Feather, "Rutherford at Manchester," p. 24. Niels Bohr, "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture 1958," in Finn Aaserud and David Favrholdt, eds., Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 10. Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928-1962) (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), pp. 383-420. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref, 13), pp. 345-354. On the reception of Rutherford's atomic model and the role that Bohr played in it, see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 35, 138-143.
67. Quoted in Feather, "Rutherford at Manchester," p. 24. Niels Bohr, "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture 1958," in Finn Aaserud and David Favrholdt, eds., Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 10. Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928-1962) (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), pp. 383-420. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref, 13), pp. 345-354. On the reception of Rutherford's atomic model and the role that Bohr played in it, see Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 35, 138-143.
68. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The Bombardment of Elements by α-Particles," Nature 113 (1924), 457; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol 3. Cambridge (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965), pp. 110-112.
69. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The Bombardment of Elements by α-Particles," Nature 113 (1924), 457; reprinted in Collected Papers, Vol 3. Cambridge (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965), pp. 110-112.
70. Laurie Brown, Michael Riordan, Max Dresden, and Lillian Hoddeson, "The Rise of the Standard Model: 1964-1979," in Rise of the Standard Model (ref. 8), pp. 3-35, on p. 24.
71. Silvan Schweber, "A Historical Perspective on the Rise of the Standard Model," in ibid., pp. 645-684, n. 2 on p. 674. "I am ... trying to break up the atom by [fast α rays]... "; Rutherford to Bohr, December 9, 1917, quoted in Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 398.
72. Silvan Schweber, "A Historical Perspective on the Rise of the Standard Model," in ibid., pp. 645-684, n. 2 on p. 674. "I am ... trying to break up the atom by [fast α rays]... "; Rutherford to Bohr, December 9, 1917, quoted in Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 398.
73. Giora Hon, "H. Hertz: 'The electrostatic and electromagnetic properties of the cathode rays are either nil or very feeble.' (1883) A Case-Study of an Experimental Error," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 18 (1987), 367-382.
74. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), p. 83.
75. Ibid., pp. 83-85. See also the web sites 〈http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1905/lenard-bio.html〉 and 〈http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1905/press.html〉.
76. Ibid., pp. 83-85. See also the web sites 〈http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1905/lenard-bio.html〉 and 〈http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1905/press.html〉.
77. Armin Hermann, "Lenard, Philipp," in Charles C. Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 8 (New York: Scribner, 1973), pp. 180-183, on p. 181. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 86-87.
78. Armin Hermann, "Lenard, Philipp," in Charles C. Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 8 (New York: Scribner, 1973), pp. 180-183, on p. 181. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 86-87.
79. Heinrich Hertz, Electric Waves (New York: Dover, 1962), p. 78.
80. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 219-220. Hermann, "Lenard," (ref. 40), p. 181; B. R. Wheaton, "Philipp Lenard and the Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 9 (1978), 299-322.
81. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 219-220. Hermann, "Lenard," (ref. 40), p. 181; B. R. Wheaton, "Philipp Lenard and the Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 9 (1978), 299-322.
82. Dahl, Cathode Rays (ref. 13), pp. 219-220. Hermann, "Lenard," (ref. 40), p. 181; B. R. Wheaton, "Philipp Lenard and the Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 9 (1978), 299-322.
83. P. Lenard, "Ueber die lichtelektrische Wirkung," Annalen der Physik 8 (1902), 149-198.
84. Ibid., pp. 188-198. J. S. Townsend, Electricity in Gases (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1915), p. 296.
85. Ibid., pp. 188-198. J. S. Townsend, Electricity in Gases (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1915), p. 296.
86. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Messung der Ionisierungsspannung in verschiedenen Gasen," Verhandlungen der Deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft 15 (1913), 34-44, on 35; "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Gasmolekülen und langsamen Elektronen," ibid., 373-390, on 379; "Über einen Zusammenhang zwischen Stossionisation und Elektronenaffinität," ibid., 929-934, on 931.
87. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Messung der Ionisierungsspannung in verschiedenen Gasen," Verhandlungen der Deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft 15 (1913), 34-44, on 35; "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Gasmolekülen und langsamen Elektronen," ibid., 373-390, on 379; "Über einen Zusammenhang zwischen Stossionisation und Elektronenaffinität," ibid., 929-934, on 931.
88. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Messung der Ionisierungsspannung in verschiedenen Gasen," Verhandlungen der Deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft 15 (1913), 34-44, on 35; "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Gasmolekülen und langsamen Elektronen," ibid., 373-390, on 379; "Über einen Zusammenhang zwischen Stossionisation und Elektronenaffinität," ibid., 929-934, on 931.
89. Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 27-28, 103. On Townsend's later career, see P. K. Hoch and E. J. Yoxen, "Schrödinger at Oxford: A Hypothetical National Cultural Synthesis which Failed," Annals of science 44 (1987), 593-616, on 601-602, 605-607.
90. Andrade, Rutherford (ref. 10), pp. 27-28, 103. On Townsend's later career, see P. K. Hoch and E. J. Yoxen, "Schrödinger at Oxford: A Hypothetical National Cultural Synthesis which Failed," Annals of science 44 (1987), 593-616, on 601-602, 605-607.
91. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
92. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
93. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
94. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
95. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
96. James Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy of free electrons into excitation energy of atoms by impacts," in Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1965), pp. 98-108 on p. 99. "Mit Sicherheit können wir jedoch sagen, dass die Hypothese des gänzlich unelastischen Stosses, auf dem die Townsendsche Stossionisationstheorie wesentlich fusst, in Helium und Wasserstoff nicht mit den Tatsachen übereinstimmt"; see Franck and Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse" (ref. 45), p. 387. See also James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen und Ionen in Gasen," Physikalische Zeitschrift 17 (1916), 409-416, 430-440; "Die Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie im optischen Spektrum durch Untersuchungen der unelastischen Zusammenstöße langsamer Elektronen mit Gasmolekülen," ibid. 20 (1919), 132-143. Armin Hermann, The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913) (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1971), p. 77. For a detailed study of the contrasting experimental studies of Townsend and Franck and Hertz, see Giora Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend: A Study of Two Types of Experimental Error," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 20 (1989), 79-106.
97. Franck and Hertz, "Bestätigung der Bohrschen Atomtheorie" (ref. 47), p. 133.
98. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen langsamen Elektronen und Gasmolekülen II," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 15 (1913), 613-620, on p. 613; "Zur Theorie der Stossionisation," ibid. 16 (1914), 12-19, on p. 19.
99. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen langsamen Elektronen und Gasmolekülen II," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 15 (1913), 613-620, on p. 613; "Zur Theorie der Stossionisation," ibid. 16 (1914), 12-19, on p. 19.
100. Franck, "Transformations of kinetic energy" (ref. 47), pp. 100-102.
101. Gerald Holton, "On the Recent Past of Physics," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 805-810, on p. 808. For targets with molecular structures the situation is much more complicated, because the impacting electron also can lose energy inelasticly to vibrational and rotational states; see L. B. Loeb, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, Third Edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 602-604.
102. Gerald Holton, "On the Recent Past of Physics," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 805-810, on p. 808. For targets with molecular structures the situation is much more complicated, because the impacting electron also can lose energy inelasticly to vibrational and rotational states; see L. B. Loeb, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, Third Edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 602-604.
103. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über die Erregung der Quecksilberresonanzlinie 253, 6 μμ durch Elektronenstösse," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 16 (1914), 512-517, on p. 512. D. ter Haar, The Old Quantum Theory (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), p. 160.
104. James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über die Erregung der Quecksilberresonanzlinie 253, 6 μμ durch Elektronenstösse," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 16 (1914), 512-517, on p. 512. D. ter Haar, The Old Quantum Theory (Oxford: Pergamon, 1967), p. 160.
105. For these curves, see James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Elektronen und den Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung desselben," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 16 (1914), 457-467, on 462-464; "Über Kinetik von Elektronen" (ref. 47), pp. 436-437. Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
106. For these curves, see James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Elektronen und den Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung desselben," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 16 (1914), 457-467, on 462-464; "Über Kinetik von Elektronen" (ref. 47), pp. 436-437. Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
107. For these curves, see James Franck and Gustav Hertz, "Über Zusammenstösse zwischen Elektronen und den Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung desselben," Verh. Deutsch. phys. Ges. 16 (1914), 457-467, on 462-464; "Über Kinetik von Elektronen" (ref. 47), pp. 436-437. Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
108. Quoted in Holton, "On the Recent Past" (ref. 51), p. 805.
109. Niels Bohr, "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation and the Structure of The Atom," Philosophical Magazine 30 (1915), 394-415, on 394, 410-411; reprinted in Ulrich Hoyer, ed. Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 2. Work on Atomic Physics (1912-1917) (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1981), pp. 392-413, on pp. 392, 408-409. Bohr was encouraged by Rutherford to carry out experiments and to test Franck and Hertz's results, but circumstances were not conducive to doing that. See, Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
110. Niels Bohr, "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation and the Structure of The Atom," Philosophical Magazine 30 (1915), 394-415, on 394, 410-411; reprinted in Ulrich Hoyer, ed. Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 2. Work on Atomic Physics (1912-1917) (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1981), pp. 392-413, on pp. 392, 408-409. Bohr was encouraged by Rutherford to carry out experiments and to test Franck and Hertz's results, but circumstances were not conducive to doing that. See, Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
111. Niels Bohr, "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation and the Structure of The Atom," Philosophical Magazine 30 (1915), 394-415, on 394, 410-411; reprinted in Ulrich Hoyer, ed. Niels Bohr Collected Works, Vol. 2. Work on Atomic Physics (1912-1917) (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1981), pp. 392-413, on pp. 392, 408-409. Bohr was encouraged by Rutherford to carry out experiments and to test Franck and Hertz's results, but circumstances were not conducive to doing that. See, Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 397.
112. Franck and Hertz, "Über Kinetik von Elektronen" (ref. 47), p. 438.
113. Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures (ref. 47), p. 93. For a detailed tracing of the origin of the error, see Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend" (ref. 47).
114. Nobel Foundation, Nobel Lectures (ref. 47), p. 93. For a detailed tracing of the origin of the error, see Hon, "Franck and Hertz versus Townsend" (ref. 47).
115. Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 22, 37.
116. Quoted in Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), p. 43.
117. Bohr, "Rutherford Memorial Lecture" (ref. 33), p. 386.
118. Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), p. 43.
119. Ibid., pp. 44, 181, 202-203. John L. Heilbron and Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Genesis of the Bohr Atom," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 1 (1969), 211-290; reprinted in Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 149-228.
120. Ibid., pp. 44, 181, 202-203. John L. Heilbron and Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Genesis of the Bohr Atom," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 1 (1969), 211-290; reprinted in Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 149-228.
121. Ibid., pp. 44, 181, 202-203. John L. Heilbron and Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Genesis of the Bohr Atom," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 1 (1969), 211-290; reprinted in Heilbron, Historical Studies (ref. 20), pp. 149-228.