Proton or prouton?: Rutherford and the depths of the atom

American Journal of Physics

Volumn 65, Issue 8, 1997, Pages 707-716

  Romer, Alfred ^a  

^a ST LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0031476604     PISSN: 00029505     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1119/1.18640     Document Type: Article

References (114)

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23. Sir E. Marsden, "Rutherford at Manchester," in Rutherford at Manchester, edited by J. B. Birks (Benjamin, New York, 1963), pp. 1-16. For Geiger's final report on his own experiment, see H. Geiger, "The scattering of α-particles by matter," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 83, 492-504 (1909-10).
24. Sir E. Marsden, "Rutherford at Manchester," in Rutherford at Manchester, edited by J. B. Birks (Benjamin, New York, 1963), pp. 1-16. For Geiger's final report on his own experiment, see H. Geiger, "The scattering of α-particles by matter," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 83, 492-504 (1909-10).
25. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "On a diffuse reflection of the α-particles," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 82, 495-500 (1909).
26. Lord Rutherford, "Forty Years of Physics," revised and prepared for the press by J. A. Ratcliffe, in Background to Modern Science, edited by J. Needham and W. Pagel (Macmillan, New York, 1938), pp. 47-74.
27. Lord Rutherford, "Forty Years of Physics," revised and prepared for the press by J. A. Ratcliffe, in Background to Modern Science, edited by J. Needham and W. Pagel (Macmillan, New York, 1938), pp. 47-74.
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40. In Ref. 8. See Rutherford's letter, dated 14 Dec. 1910, on pp. 233-238. The new atom occupies a third of a paragraph in a long, newsy letter.
41. For details see Ref. 30.
42. A. S. Eve, Rutherford (New York, Macmillan, 1939), pp. 194-199.
43. E. Rutherford, "The scattering of the α and βrays and the structure of the atom," Proc. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 55, xviii-xx (1910-1911) in Ref. 7, Vol. 2, pp. 212-213; H. Geiger, "The large scattering of the α particle," ibid, xx-xi.
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47. DSB: C. A. Fleming, "Marsden, Ernest," Vol. 18 (1990), pp. 595-597; Marsden, "Rutherford at Manchester," Ref. 17; Badash, Rutherford and Boltwood, Ref. 8, Letter to Boltwood of 25 April 1911, pp. 247-248.
48. DSB: C. A. Fleming, "Marsden, Ernest," Vol. 18 (1990), pp. 595-597; Marsden, "Rutherford at Manchester," Ref. 17; Badash, Rutherford and Boltwood, Ref. 8, Letter to Boltwood of 25 April 1911, pp. 247-248.
49. H. Geiger and E. Marsden, "The laws of deflexion of α particles through large angles," Philos. Mag. 25, 604-623 (1913).
50. E. Rutherford, in Ref. 27, p. 620. Its "Preface," pp. v-vii, is dated October 1912.
51. DSB: Trenn, "Geiger," Ref. 11.
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56. Bohr cited here a paper by A. van den Broek, "Die Radioelemente, das periodische System und der Konstitution der Atome," Phys, Z. 14, 32-41 (1913), which contains a similar assumption. Van den Broek proposed that the "intra-atomic charge" of an atom was equal to half its atomic weight. Since on the average the atomic weight increases by 2 from one element to the next, the intra-atomic charge, starting with 1 at hydrogen, must increase by unit steps to the 118th element uranium. The phrasing of Bohr's citation, "Comp. A. v. d. Broek, Phys. Z. xiv, 32 (1913)" suggests an acknowledgement rather than a statement of indebtedness.
57. Bohr cited here a paper by A. van den Broek, "Die Radioelemente, das periodische System und der Konstitution der Atome," Phys, Z. 14, 32-41 (1913), which contains a similar assumption. Van den Broek proposed that the "intra-atomic charge" of an atom was equal to half its atomic weight. Since on the average the atomic weight increases by 2 from one element to the next, the intra-atomic charge, starting with 1 at hydrogen, must increase by unit steps to the 118th element uranium. The phrasing of Bohr's citation, "Comp. A. v. d. Broek, Phys. Z. xiv, 32 (1913)" suggests an acknowledgement rather than a statement of indebtedness.
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63. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
64. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
65. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
66. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
67. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
68. C. G. Darwin, "The interference-phenomena produced by passing x-rays through crystals," Mem. Manchester Lit. Philos. Soc. 57, ix (1912-1913); W. L Bragg, "The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves from a crystal," Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 17, 43-57 (1912-1914); "The specular reflection of x-rays," Nature 90, 410 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg, "X-rays and crystals," ibid. 90, 219, 360-361, 572 (1912-1913); W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The reflection of x-rays by crystals," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 88, 428-438 (1913); H. Moseley and C. G. Darwin, "The reflection of the x-rays," Nature 90, 594 (1912-1913); "The reflexion of the x-rays," Philos. Mag. 26, 210-232 (1913).
69. For a modern, quantum mechanical calculation see A. M. Lesk, "Reinterpretation of Moseley's experiments relating Kα line frequencies and atomic number," Am. J. Phys. 48, 492-494 (1980). For the more recent literature see K. Razi Naqvi, "The physical (in) significance of Moseley's screening parameter," Am. J. Phys. 64, 1332 (1996).
70. For a modern, quantum mechanical calculation see A. M. Lesk, "Reinterpretation of Moseley's experiments relating Kα line frequencies and atomic number," Am. J. Phys. 48, 492-494 (1980). For the more recent literature see K. Razi Naqvi, "The physical (in) significance of Moseley's screening parameter," Am. J. Phys. 64, 1332 (1996).
71. H. G. J. Moseley, "The high-frequency spectra of the elements," Philos. Mag. 26, 1024-1034 (1913).
72. In Ref. 33, p. 226.
73. C. G. Darwin, "Collision of α particles with light atoms," Philos. Mag. 17, 499-506 (1914); See also Sir C. Darwin, "Moseley and the Atomic Numbers of the Elements," in Ref. 17, pp. 17-26.
74. C. G. Darwin, "Collision of α particles with light atoms," Philos. Mag. 17, 499-506 (1914); See also Sir C. Darwin, "Moseley and the Atomic Numbers of the Elements," in Ref. 17, pp. 17-26.
75. E. Marsden, "The passage of α particles through hydrogen," Philos. Mag. 27, 824-830 (1914).
76. Sir E. Rutherford, "The structure of the atom," Philos. Mag. 27, 488-498 (1914); in Ref. 7, Vol. 2, pp. 423-431.
77. In Ref. 10, pp. 25-26.
78. In Ref. 22, pp. 200-202.
79. In Ref. 33, pp. 235-237.
80. H. G. J. Moseley, "The high-frequency spectra of the elements. II," Philos. Mag. 27, 703-713 (1914).
81. "Physics and Astronomy at the British Association," Nature 94, 349-353 (1914).
82. DSB: J. L. Heilbron, "Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys," Vol. 9, pp. 542-545.
83. DSB: C. A. Fleming, "Marsden, Ernest," Vol. 18 (1990), pp. 595-597; R. B. Lindsay, "Darwin, Charles Galton," Vol. 3 (1981), pp. 563-565.
84. DSB: C. A. Fleming, "Marsden, Ernest," Vol. 18 (1990), pp. 595-597; R. B. Lindsay, "Darwin, Charles Galton," Vol. 3 (1981), pp. 563-565.
85. In Ref. 33, pp. 244-262.
86. E. Marsden and W. C. Lantsberry, "The passage of α particles through hydrogen. II," Philos. Mag. 30, 240-243 (1915).
87. E. Rutherford, "Collisions of α particles with light atoms," Philos. Mag. 37 (1919), in four parts as follows: "I. Hydrogen," pp. 537-561; "II. Velocity of the hydrogen atoms," pp. 562-571; "III. Nitrogen and oxygen atoms," pp. 571-580; "IV. An anomalous effect in nitrogen," pp. 581-587; in Ref. 7, Vol. 2, pp. 547-567, 568-576, 577-584, 585-590.
88. In Ref. 33, pp. 268-273.
89. DSB: John Hendry, "Chadwick, James," Vol. 17 (1990), pp. 143-148.
90. Sir E. Rutherford, "Nuclear constitution of atoms," Proc. Roy. S. London, Ser. A 97, 374-400 (1920); in Ref. 7, pp. 14-38.
91. DSB: Stephen G. Brush, "Fowler, Ralph Howard," Vol. 5, pp. 102-103.
92. In Ref. 17, p. 12. R. H. Fowler was closely associated with both Darwin and Rutherford, and I have chosen to substitute his name for the "F. Fowler" in Marsden's reminiscences.
93. Sir E. Rutherford, "The mass of the long-range particles from thorium C," Philos. Mag. 41, 570-574 (1921); in Ref. 7, pp. 43-47; L. F. Bates and J. Stanley Rogers, "Long-range particles from radium active deposit," Nature 112, 435-436 (1923); "Particles of long range emitted by the active deposits of radium, thorium, and actinium," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 105, 97-116 (1924).
94. Sir E. Rutherford, "The mass of the long-range particles from thorium C," Philos. Mag. 41, 570-574 (1921); in Ref. 7, pp. 43-47; L. F. Bates and J. Stanley Rogers, "Long-range particles from radium active deposit," Nature 112, 435-436 (1923); "Particles of long range emitted by the active deposits of radium, thorium, and actinium," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 105, 97-116 (1924).
95. Sir E. Rutherford, "The mass of the long-range particles from thorium C," Philos. Mag. 41, 570-574 (1921); in Ref. 7, pp. 43-47; L. F. Bates and J. Stanley Rogers, "Long-range particles from radium active deposit," Nature 112, 435-436 (1923); "Particles of long range emitted by the active deposits of radium, thorium, and actinium," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 105, 97-116 (1924).
96. J. Chadwick, "Charge on the atomic nucleus and the law of force; validity of the inverse square law for the Pt atom," Philos. Mag. 40, 734-746 (1920).
97. C. G. Darwin, "Collisions of α-particles with hydrogen nuclei," Philos. Mag. 41, 486-510 (1921).
98. J. Chadwick and E. S. Bieler, "Collisions of α-particles with hydrogen nuclei." Philos. Mag. 42, 923-940 (1921).
99. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The disintegration of elements by α-particles," Nature 107, 41 (1921); in Ref. 7, pp. 41-42.
100. In Ref. 33, p. 286.
101. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The artificial disintegration of light elements," Philos. Mag. 42, 809-825 (1921); in Ref. 7, pp. 48-62.
102. Sir E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The disintegration of elements by α particles," Philos. Mag. 44, 417-432 (1922); in Ref. 7, Vol. 3, pp. 67-80.
103. "Atomic projectiles and their properties," Engineering 115, 242-243, 264-266, 306-308, 338-340, 358-359, 718-800 (1923); Sir E. Rutherford, "The electrical structure of matter," Nature 112, 409-419 (1923).
104. "Atomic projectiles and their properties," Engineering 115, 242-243, 264-266, 306-308, 338-340, 358-359, 718-800 (1923); Sir E. Rutherford, "The electrical structure of matter," Nature 112, 409-419 (1923).
105. E. S. Bieler, "The large-angle scattering of α-particles by light nuclei," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 105, 434-450 (1924).
106. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "The bombardment of elements by α-particles," Nature 113, 457 (1924); in Ref. 7, Vol. 3, pp. 110-112.
107. E. Rutherford and J. Chadwick, "Further experiments on the artificial disintegration of the elements," Proc. Phys. Soc. 36, 417-422 (1924); in Ref. 7, Vol. 3, pp. 113-119.
108. T. Shimizu, "A reciprocating expansion apparatus for detecting ionizing rays," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 99, 425-431 (1921); "A preliminary note on branched α-ray tracks," ibid. 99, 432-435 (1921).
109. T. Shimizu, "A reciprocating expansion apparatus for detecting ionizing rays," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 99, 425-431 (1921); "A preliminary note on branched α-ray tracks," ibid. 99, 432-435 (1921).
110. P. M. S. Blackett, "On the analysis of α-ray photographs," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 102, 294-318 (1922); "The study of forked α-ray tracks," ibid. 103, 62-78 (1923).
111. P. M. S. Blackett, "On the analysis of α-ray photographs," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 102, 294-318 (1922); "The study of forked α-ray tracks," ibid. 103, 62-78 (1923).
112. P. M. S. Blackett, "The ejection of protons from nitrogen nuclei, photographed by the Wilson method," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 107, 349-360 (1925).
113. E. Rutherford, "Disintegration of atomic nuclei," Nature 115, 493-494 (1925); in Ref. 7, Vol. 3, pp. 136-138.
114. In Ref. 28.