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Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 182-210+259

Rethinking the Education/State Formation Connection: Pedagogic Reform in Singapore, 1945-1965

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EID: 0141655255     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/340476     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (23)

References (178)
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    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
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    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
    • (1992) True Government by Choice Men?
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    • Education and State Formation Revisited
    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
    • Education and State Formation
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    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
    • (1997) Education, Globalization, and the Nation State
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    • 0038056454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
    • (1998) Learning to be Loyal
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    • New York: Cambridge University Press
    • The literature here is quite extensive. See, e.g., John Boli, New Citizens for a New Society (Elmford, N.Y.: Pergamon, 1989); Bruce Curtis, Building the Educational State (London: Falmer, 1988), and True Government by Choice Men? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992); Andy Green, Education and State Formation, "Education and State Formation Revisited," and Education, Globalization, and the Nation State (London: Macmillan, 1997); Stephen Harp, Learning to Be Loyal (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998); and James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
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    • New York: Routledge
    • Of course, some scholars studying the state and education have pointed out that schools are sites of contestation and that education systems are by no means mechanically determined by external powers, such as the state and the dominant class (see, e.g., Michael W. Apple, Education and Power, 2d ed. [New York: Routledge, 1995], and Educating the "Right" Way [New York: Routledge, 2001]). However, people working on state formation and education (see n. 2 above for a list of these researchers) often have failed to incorporate insights from these areas of literature to create more sophisticated theoretical formulations.
    • (1995) Education and Power, 2d Ed.
    • Apple, M.W.1
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    • New York: Routledge
    • Of course, some scholars studying the state and education have pointed out that schools are sites of contestation and that education systems are by no means mechanically determined by external powers, such as the state and the dominant class (see, e.g., Michael W. Apple, Education and Power, 2d ed. [New York: Routledge, 1995], and Educating the "Right" Way [New York: Routledge, 2001]). However, people working on state formation and education (see n. 2 above for a list of these researchers) often have failed to incorporate insights from these areas of literature to create more sophisticated theoretical formulations.
    • (2001) Educating the "Right" Way
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    • note
    • The discussion in this article does not go beyond 1965. This is not because we regard state formation as having been completed in that year. Instead, we believe that state formation is always an ongoing process and that the ruling regime of Singapore continued to struggle to consolidate its dominance after 1965. The post-1965 educational politics of Singapore, once it became a sovereign state and entered a new phase of state formation after "withdrawing" from Malaysia, are clearly worth further study and should be the topic of another article.
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    • Because of space limitations, we have omitted many crucial struggles over the state and Chinese schools in postwar Singapore and have provided a relatively abbreviated theoretical framework of state building and education in this article. Readers interested in a fuller theoretical and historical account may read Ting-Hong Wong, Hegemonies Compared: State Formation and Chinese School Politics in Postwar Singapore and Hong Kong (New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002).
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    • See Michael W. Apple, Official Knowledge, 2d ed. (New York: Routledge, 2000); Misook Kim Cho and Michael W. Apple, "Schooling, Work, and Subjectivity," British Journal of Sociology of Education 19, no. 3 (September 1998): 269-90; and Roger Dale, The State and Education Policy (Bristol, Pa.: Open University Press, 1989).
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    • Malayan Chinese and the Citizenship Issue, 1945-1948
    • December
    • The constitution of the Malayan Union granted local citizenship to those born in either Singapore or the union and those who had resided in either of the territories for 10 of the preceding 15 years. This policy, in effect, gave local citizenship to almost all Chinese and Indian residents. This scheme was advanced because the British wished to give the Chinese residents a definite status and curb possible interference from, the Chinese government in the affairs of those Chinese. This pro-Chinese opinion gained support in 'Whitehall because during the war the Chinese people were the most dedicated group resisting the Japanese, while the Malays collaborated with the enemy. Singapore was excluded from the Malayan Union because the British wanted to preserve it as a free port and naval base. Also, by leaving out Singapore, the British hoped that the Malays, who would still be the numerical majority in the union, would consider the scheme palatable. About the controversy over the Malayan Union, see James de Vere Allen, The Malayan Union, Southeast Asia Studies Monograph no. 10 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967); Cheah Boon Kheng, "Malayan Chinese and the Citizenship Issue, 1945-1948," Review of Indonesia and Malayan Affairs 12, no. 2 (December 1978): 95-122; Lau (n. 28 above); and Mohamed Noordin Sopiee, From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region, 1945-1965 (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1974).
    • (1978) Review of Indonesia and Malayan Affairs , vol.12 , Issue.2 , pp. 95-122
    • Kheng, C.B.1
  • 67
    • 0141634915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 28 above
    • The constitution of the Malayan Union granted local citizenship to those born in either Singapore or the union and those who had resided in either of the territories for 10 of the preceding 15 years. This policy, in effect, gave local citizenship to almost all Chinese and Indian residents. This scheme was advanced because the British wished to give the Chinese residents a definite status and curb possible interference from, the Chinese government in the affairs of those Chinese. This pro-Chinese opinion gained support in 'Whitehall because during the war the Chinese people were the most dedicated group resisting the Japanese, while the Malays collaborated with the enemy. Singapore was excluded from the Malayan Union because the British wanted to preserve it as a free port and naval base. Also, by leaving out Singapore, the British hoped that the Malays, who would still be the numerical majority in the union, would consider the scheme palatable. About the controversy over the Malayan Union, see James de Vere Allen, The Malayan Union, Southeast Asia Studies Monograph no. 10 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967); Cheah Boon Kheng, "Malayan Chinese and the Citizenship Issue, 1945-1948," Review of Indonesia and Malayan Affairs 12, no. 2 (December 1978): 95-122; Lau (n. 28 above); and Mohamed Noordin Sopiee, From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region, 1945-1965 (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1974).
    • Lau1
  • 68
    • 0003558918 scopus 로고
    • Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya
    • The constitution of the Malayan Union granted local citizenship to those born in either Singapore or the union and those who had resided in either of the territories for 10 of the preceding 15 years. This policy, in effect, gave local citizenship to almost all Chinese and Indian residents. This scheme was advanced because the British wished to give the Chinese residents a definite status and curb possible interference from, the Chinese government in the affairs of those Chinese. This pro-Chinese opinion gained support in 'Whitehall because during the war the Chinese people were the most dedicated group resisting the Japanese, while the Malays collaborated with the enemy. Singapore was excluded from the Malayan Union because the British wanted to preserve it as a free port and naval base. Also, by leaving out Singapore, the British hoped that the Malays, who would still be the numerical majority in the union, would consider the scheme palatable. About the controversy over the Malayan Union, see James de Vere Allen, The Malayan Union, Southeast Asia Studies Monograph no. 10 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967); Cheah Boon Kheng, "Malayan Chinese and the Citizenship Issue, 1945-1948," Review of Indonesia and Malayan Affairs 12, no. 2 (December 1978): 95-122; Lau (n. 28 above); and Mohamed Noordin Sopiee, From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region, 1945-1965 (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1974).
    • (1974) From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region, 1945-1965
    • Sopiee, M.N.1
  • 69
    • 84917167065 scopus 로고
    • The Anti-federation Movement in Malaya, 1946-1948
    • March
    • Yeo Kim Wah, "The Anti-federation Movement in Malaya, 1946-1948," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 4 (March 1973): 43-44.
    • (1973) Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , vol.4 , pp. 43-44
    • Wah, Y.K.1
  • 71
    • 0141523757 scopus 로고
    • September 12, Secretary for Chinese Affairs, Appendix B of the Report on a Vernacular Publications Bureau, CO (Colonial Office declassified files) 825/90/7
    • Straits Budget, September 12, 1946; and E. C. S. Adkins, Secretary for Chinese Affairs, Appendix B of the Report on a Vernacular Publications Bureau, CO (Colonial Office declassified files) 825/90/7.
    • (1946) Straits Budget
    • Adkins, E.C.S.1
  • 72
    • 0141746908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CO 825/90/7
    • CO 825/90/7.
  • 75
    • 84972130832 scopus 로고
    • Malayan Civil Service, 1874-1941: Colonial Bureaucracy/Malayan Elite
    • January
    • For instance, Adkins had judged that the only way to resolve the problem of Chinese schools was to replace them with English institutions (CO 825/90/7; and Memorandum from the Member for Education, Ex. Co. Paper no. 3/26/52, Federation of Malaya, CO [Colonial Office declassified files] 1022/285). The British colonial bureaucrats in Singapore and the peninsula had this anti-Chinese disposition chiefly because, considering the Malays as the only indigenous group, they had put very minimum effort into learning Chinese language and culture. For the formation of this anti-Chinese attitude, see James de Vere Allen, "Malayan Civil Service, 1874-1941: Colonial Bureaucracy/Malayan Elite," Comparative Studies in Society and History 12, no. 1 (January 1970): 149-87.
    • (1970) Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol.12 , Issue.1 , pp. 149-187
    • De Vere Allen, J.1
  • 76
    • 0141746887 scopus 로고
    • March 18 and April 16
    • Sin Chew Jit Poh, March 18 and April 16, 1952.
    • (1952) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 77
  • 78
    • 0141746892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CO 1022/285
    • CO 1022/285.
  • 88
    • 0141634908 scopus 로고
    • December 12 and 23
    • Ibid., December 12 and 23, 1953.
    • (1953) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 89
    • 0004961335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 21 above
    • Before automatic registration, the number of registered voters was very small, and the majority of the electorate were Indians. After automatic registration, the electorate increased from 76,000 to 300,299, and the Chinese became predominant. See Yeo, Political Development in Singapore (n. 21 above), pp. 256, 259.
    • Political Development in Singapore , pp. 256
    • Yeo1
  • 90
    • 0011070712 scopus 로고
    • From Colonialism to Independence, 1945-1965
    • ed. E. C. T. Chew and E. Lee (Singapore: Oxford University Press)
    • Yeo Kirn Wah and Albert Lau, "From Colonialism to Independence, 1945-1965," in A History of Singapore, ed. E. C. T. Chew and E. Lee (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 132-33.
    • (1991) A History of Singapore , pp. 132-133
    • Wah, Y.K.1    Lau, A.2
  • 91
    • 0004961335 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Yeo, Political Development in Singapore, pp. 149-50; and Albert Lau, "The Colonial Office and the Singapore Merdeka Mission, 23 April to 15 May 1956," Journal of South Seas Society 49 (1994): 104-22.
    • Political Development in Singapore , pp. 149-150
    • Yeo1
  • 92
    • 0141523717 scopus 로고
    • The Colonial Office and the Singapore Merdeka Mission, 23 April to 15 May 1956
    • Yeo, Political Development in Singapore, pp. 149-50; and Albert Lau, "The Colonial Office and the Singapore Merdeka Mission, 23 April to 15 May 1956," Journal of South Seas Society 49 (1994): 104-22.
    • (1994) Journal of South Seas Society , vol.49 , pp. 104-122
    • Lau, A.1
  • 99
    • 0141858440 scopus 로고
    • March 1 and 6, and April 4
    • About the responses of some mainstream Chinese education bodies, such as the Singapore Chinese Middle School Teacher Association and the Chinese School Management/Staff Association, see related reports from Sin Chew Jit Poh, March 1 and 6, and April 4, 1956.
    • (1956) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 103
    • 0141858440 scopus 로고
    • July 17
    • Ibid.; and Sin Chew Jit Poh, July 17, 1956.
    • (1956) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 107
    • 0141858426 scopus 로고
    • July 17 and August 6
    • Ibid., July 17 and August 6, 1958.
    • (1958) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 109
    • 0141746888 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Ministry of Education; reprint
    • Syllabus for Geography in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese) (Singapore: Ministry of Education; reprint, 1959); and Syllabus for History in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese) (Singapore: Singapore Ministry of Education; reprint, 1959).
    • (1959) Syllabus for Geography in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese)
  • 110
    • 0141634887 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Singapore Ministry of Education; reprint
    • Syllabus for Geography in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese) (Singapore: Ministry of Education; reprint, 1959); and Syllabus for History in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese) (Singapore: Singapore Ministry of Education; reprint, 1959).
    • (1959) Syllabus for History in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957 (in Chinese)
  • 112
    • 0003921599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York: Teachers College Press
    • Michael W. Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (London: Routledge, 1986), Cultural Politics and Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), and Official Knowledge (n. 11 above); and Cho and Apple (n. 11 above).
    • (1996) Cultural Politics and Education
  • 113
    • 0003686465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 11 above
    • Michael W. Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (London: Routledge, 1986), Cultural Politics and Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), and Official Knowledge (n. 11 above); and Cho and Apple (n. 11 above).
    • Official Knowledge
  • 114
    • 0141858446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 11 above
    • Michael W. Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (London: Routledge, 1986), Cultural Politics and Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), and Official Knowledge (n. 11 above); and Cho and Apple (n. 11 above).
    • Cho1    Apple2
  • 117
    • 84905325348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • April 21
    • In 1958 the government needed to reschedule the Senior III Examination so that the timing of these two tests would not be too close and candidates from English schools sitting for both the COSCE and the Senior III Examination would have enough time for preparation (Sin Chew Jit Poh, April 21, 1958). This decision of the government implied that the two exams had different requirements.
    • Sin Chew Jit Poh , pp. 1958
  • 119
    • 0141858440 scopus 로고
    • January 26
    • For more on the admission policy of the Nanyang University, see Sin Chew Jit Poh, January 26, 1956; Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih (The history of Nanyang University inauguration) (Singapore: Nanyang Cultural Publishing, 1956), pp. 195-99; and Ting-Hong Wong, "State Formation, Hegemony, and Nanyang University in Singapore, 1953-1965," Formosan Education and Society 1, no. 1 (December 2000): 59-85. For the China-oriented inclination of this university, one can check the backgrounds of its professors on pp. 189-91 of Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih.
    • (1956) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 120
    • 0141746893 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Nanyang Cultural Publishing
    • For more on the admission policy of the Nanyang University, see Sin Chew Jit Poh, January 26, 1956; Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih (The history of Nanyang University inauguration) (Singapore: Nanyang Cultural Publishing, 1956), pp. 195-99; and Ting-Hong Wong, "State Formation, Hegemony, and Nanyang University in Singapore, 1953-1965," Formosan Education and Society 1, no. 1 (December 2000): 59-85. For the China-oriented inclination of this university, one can check the backgrounds of its professors on pp. 189-91 of Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih.
    • (1956) Nan-yang Ta Hsueh Ch'uang Hsiao Shih (The History of Nanyang University Inauguration) , pp. 195-199
  • 121
    • 0037718698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Formation, Hegemony, and Nanyang University in Singapore, 1953-1965
    • December
    • For more on the admission policy of the Nanyang University, see Sin Chew Jit Poh, January 26, 1956; Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih (The history of Nanyang University inauguration) (Singapore: Nanyang Cultural Publishing, 1956), pp. 195-99; and Ting-Hong Wong, "State Formation, Hegemony, and Nanyang University in Singapore, 1953-1965," Formosan Education and Society 1, no. 1 (December 2000): 59-85. For the China-oriented inclination of this university, one can check the backgrounds of its professors on pp. 189-91 of Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih.
    • (2000) Formosan Education and Society , vol.1 , Issue.1 , pp. 59-85
    • Wong, T.-H.1
  • 122
    • 0141634890 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on the admission policy of the Nanyang University, see Sin Chew Jit Poh, January 26, 1956; Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih (The history of Nanyang University inauguration) (Singapore: Nanyang Cultural Publishing, 1956), pp. 195-99; and Ting-Hong Wong, "State Formation, Hegemony, and Nanyang University in Singapore, 1953-1965," Formosan Education and Society 1, no. 1 (December 2000): 59-85. For the China-oriented inclination of this university, one can check the backgrounds of its professors on pp. 189-91 of Nan-yang ta hsueh ch'uang hsiao shih.
    • Nan-yang Ta Hsueh Ch'uang Hsiao Shih , pp. 189-191
  • 123
  • 124
    • 0141858433 scopus 로고
    • The word Malaya referred to the geographical region of the Malay Peninsula
    • Syllabus for Geography in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957; and Syllabus for History in Primary and Secondary Schools, 1957. The word Malaya referred to the geographical region of the Malay Peninsula.
    • (1957) Syllabus for History in Primary and Secondary Schools
  • 128
    • 0141634891 scopus 로고
    • British Policies and Education of Malays
    • Philip Loh, "British Policies and Education of Malays," Paedagogica Historica 14, no. 2 (1974): 355-84, and "A Review of Educational Development in the Federated Malay States to 1939," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (September 1974): 225-38; Rex Stevenson, Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policies towards Malays: 1875-1906 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975); and Keith Watson, "Rulers and Ruled: Racial Perceptions, Curriculum, and Schooling in Colonial Malaya and Singapore," in The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience, ed. J. A. Mangan (London: Routledge, 1993).
    • (1974) Paedagogica Historica , vol.14 , Issue.2 , pp. 355-384
    • Loh, P.1
  • 129
    • 0141523758 scopus 로고
    • A Review of Educational Development in the Federated Malay States to 1939
    • September
    • Philip Loh, "British Policies and Education of Malays," Paedagogica Historica 14, no. 2 (1974): 355-84, and "A Review of Educational Development in the Federated Malay States to 1939," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (September 1974): 225-38; Rex Stevenson, Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policies towards Malays: 1875-1906 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975); and Keith Watson, "Rulers and Ruled: Racial Perceptions, Curriculum, and Schooling in Colonial Malaya and Singapore," in The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience, ed. J. A. Mangan (London: Routledge, 1993).
    • (1974) Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , vol.5 , Issue.2 , pp. 225-238
  • 130
    • 0141634891 scopus 로고
    • Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press
    • Philip Loh, "British Policies and Education of Malays," Paedagogica Historica 14, no. 2 (1974): 355-84, and "A Review of Educational Development in the Federated Malay States to 1939," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (September 1974): 225-38; Rex Stevenson, Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policies towards Malays: 1875-1906 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975); and Keith Watson, "Rulers and Ruled: Racial Perceptions, Curriculum, and Schooling in Colonial Malaya and Singapore," in The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience, ed. J. A. Mangan (London: Routledge, 1993).
    • (1975) Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policies Towards Malays: 1875-1906
    • Stevenson, R.1
  • 131
    • 0141634891 scopus 로고
    • Rulers and Ruled: Racial Perceptions, Curriculum, and Schooling in Colonial Malaya and Singapore
    • ed. J. A. Mangan (London: Routledge)
    • Philip Loh, "British Policies and Education of Malays," Paedagogica Historica 14, no. 2 (1974): 355-84, and "A Review of Educational Development in the Federated Malay States to 1939," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (September 1974): 225-38; Rex Stevenson, Cultivators and Administrators: British Educational Policies towards Malays: 1875-1906 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975); and Keith Watson, "Rulers and Ruled: Racial Perceptions, Curriculum, and Schooling in Colonial Malaya and Singapore," in The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience, ed. J. A. Mangan (London: Routledge, 1993).
    • (1993) The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience
    • Watson, K.1
  • 132
    • 0003810364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 31 above
    • Under pressure from the Indian government, the colonial state in British Malaya enacted the Labour Code of 1923, which stipulated that rubber plantations provide schools for children of Tamil workers. Many plantation owners dismissed this legislation as a shifting of public responsibility that should rightly belong to the state and responded halfheartedly by installing a rudimentary form of schools. Loh, Seeds of Separatism (n. 31 above), pp. 44-47, 102; and S. M. Ponniah, "The Poverty of Tamil Education in Singapore, 1946-1966," Intisari 3, no. 4 (1968): 97.
    • Seeds of Separatism , pp. 44-47
    • Loh1
  • 133
    • 0141634892 scopus 로고
    • The Poverty of Tamil Education in Singapore, 1946-1966
    • Under pressure from the Indian government, the colonial state in British Malaya enacted the Labour Code of 1923, which stipulated that rubber plantations provide schools for children of Tamil workers. Many plantation owners dismissed this legislation as a shifting of public responsibility that should rightly belong to the state and responded halfheartedly by installing a rudimentary form of schools. Loh, Seeds of Separatism (n. 31 above), pp. 44-47, 102; and S. M. Ponniah, "The Poverty of Tamil Education in Singapore, 1946-1966," Intisari 3, no. 4 (1968): 97.
    • (1968) Intisari , vol.3 , Issue.4 , pp. 97
    • Ponniah, S.M.1
  • 134
    • 0141746855 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems
    • August
    • Cheah Boon Kheng, "Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems," Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 10, no. 2 (August 1997): 41-42; and Albert Lau, "The National Past and the Writing of the History of Singapore," in Imagining Singapore, ed. B. K. Choon, A. Pakir, and T. C. Kiong (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1992), pp. 46-48.
    • (1997) Crossroads: an Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp. 41-42
    • Kheng, C.B.1
  • 135
    • 0010874106 scopus 로고
    • The National Past and the Writing of the History of Singapore
    • ed. B. K. Choon, A. Pakir, and T. C. Kiong (Singapore: Times Academic Press)
    • Cheah Boon Kheng, "Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems," Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 10, no. 2 (August 1997): 41-42; and Albert Lau, "The National Past and the Writing of the History of Singapore," in Imagining Singapore, ed. B. K. Choon, A. Pakir, and T. C. Kiong (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1992), pp. 46-48.
    • (1992) Imagining Singapore , pp. 46-48
    • Lau, A.1
  • 138
    • 0141858428 scopus 로고
    • n. 80 above
    • First Education Triennial Survey, 1955-1957 (n. 80 above), p. 37. About the background of the UCLES, its role in consolidating imperial power, its connection with the colonial office, and its adjustment to the postwar era of decolonization, see A. J. Stockwell, "Examination and Empire: The Cambridge Certificate in the Colonies, 1857-1957," in Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialization and British Imperialism, ed. J. A. Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990).
    • (1955) First Education Triennial Survey, 1955-1957 , pp. 37
  • 139
    • 0141523766 scopus 로고
    • Examination and Empire: The Cambridge Certificate in the Colonies, 1857-1957
    • ed. J. A. Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press)
    • First Education Triennial Survey, 1955-1957 (n. 80 above), p. 37. About the background of the UCLES, its role in consolidating imperial power, its connection with the colonial office, and its adjustment to the postwar era of decolonization, see A. J. Stockwell, "Examination and Empire: The Cambridge Certificate in the Colonies, 1857-1957," in Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialization and British Imperialism, ed. J. A. Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990).
    • (1990) Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialization and British Imperialism
    • Stockwell, A.J.1
  • 141
    • 0141523778 scopus 로고
    • October 29
    • Ibid., October 29, 1959; Straits Times, October 29, 1959.
    • (1959) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 142
    • 0004011833 scopus 로고
    • October 29
    • Ibid., October 29, 1959; Straits Times, October 29, 1959.
    • (1959) Straits Times
  • 143
    • 0141634857 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1959 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 2.
    • (1959) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 2
  • 144
    • 0141523708 scopus 로고
    • October 13 and December 11
    • Sin Chew Jit Poh, October 13 and December 11, 1960.
    • (1960) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 147
  • 148
    • 0141634902 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1960 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 6.
    • (1960) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 6
  • 149
    • 0141858429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sixth form is a British system. It is a 2-year course to prepare students who have completed secondary education for the entrance examination of universities
    • Sixth form is a British system. It is a 2-year course to prepare students who have completed secondary education for the entrance examination of universities.
  • 150
    • 0141746901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 1961, the government replaced the old Senior Middle III Examination with these two exams
    • In 1961, the government replaced the old Senior Middle III Examination with these two exams.
  • 155
    • 0141858421 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 93 above
    • Stockwell (n. 93 above). One indicator for the development of this kind of partnership relation was the installation of the Singapore Advisory Committee of the UCLES in May 1960. This committee consisted of representatives from both the Ministry of Education in Singapore and the UCLES, and its function was to cooperate in the administration of local Cambridge exams. See Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1960, p. 7.
    • Stockwell1
  • 156
    • 0141523728 scopus 로고
    • Stockwell (n. 93 above). One indicator for the development of this kind of partnership relation was the installation of the Singapore Advisory Committee of the UCLES in May 1960. This committee consisted of representatives from both the Ministry of Education in Singapore and the UCLES, and its function was to cooperate in the administration of local Cambridge exams. See Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1960, p. 7.
    • (1960) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 7
  • 161
    • 0141858365 scopus 로고
    • July 10
    • Standard, July 10, 1959.
    • (1959) Standard
  • 163
    • 0141523708 scopus 로고
    • May 19
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1960, p. 7; and Sin Chew Jit Poh, May 19, 1960.
    • (1960) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 164
  • 167
    • 0141523708 scopus 로고
    • January 19
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1959 (n. 96 above), p. 2; and Sin Chew Jit Poh, January 19, 1960.
    • (1960) Sin Chew Jit Poh
  • 168
    • 0038892798 scopus 로고
    • January 12
    • Straits Times, January 12, 1960.
    • (1960) Straits Times
  • 169
    • 0141634881 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 89 above, p. 103
    • Ponniah (n. 89 above), p. 103.
    • Ponniah1
  • 170
    • 0141634882 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1962 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 4.
    • (1962) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 4
  • 171
    • 0141858420 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1964 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 5.
    • (1964) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 5
  • 172
    • 0141634880 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1963 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 4.
    • (1963) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 4
  • 173
    • 0141858372 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1967 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 7.
    • (1967) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 7
  • 176
    • 84902964927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 83 above
    • Report of the Nanyang University Curriculum Review Committee (Singapore: Nanyang University, 1965), p. 1; and Wong, "State Formation" (n. 83 above).
    • State Formation
    • Wong1
  • 177
    • 0141634843 scopus 로고
    • Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.
    • Ministry of Education, Annual Report, 1965 (Singapore: Government Printer, n.d.), p. 18.
    • (1965) Ministry of Education, Annual Report , pp. 18
  • 178
    • 0141858383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • n. 11 above
    • See also Cho and Apple (n. 11 above).
    • Cho1    Apple2


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.