Impaired fertility caused by endocrine dysfunction in women

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 573-592

  Kalro, Brinda N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

THYROID ANTIBODY;

ACROMEGALY; ADRENAL DISEASE; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; AUTOIMMUNITY; CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA; CUSHING SYNDROME; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; EXPERIENCE; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INFERTILITY; OVARY INSUFFICIENCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; THYROID DISEASE;

EID: 0141510025     PISSN: 08898529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0889-8529(03)00041-0     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Tho PT, Byrd JR, McDonough PG. Etiologies and subsequent reproductive performance of 100 couples with recurrent abortion. Fertil Steril 1979;32:389-95.
2. Fedele L, Simoni G, Zamberletti D, et al. Etiologia ed evolzione reproducttiva di 143 coppie con aborto abituale. Contracept Fertil Sess 1980;5:501 [in Italian].
3. Stratford GA, Barth JH, Rutherford AJ, Balen AH. Value of thyroid function tests in routine screening of women investigated for infertility. Hum Fertil [Camb] 2000;3:203-6.
4. Lincoln SR, Ke RW, Kutteh WH. Screening for hypothyroidism in infertile women. J Reprod Med 1999;44:455-7.
5. Bray GA. Increased sensitivity of the thyroid in iodine depleted rats to the goitrogenic effect of thyrotropin. Clin Invest 1968;47:1640-7.
6. Aboul-Khair SA, Crooks J, Turnbull AC, et al. The physiological changes in thyroid function during pregnancy. Clin Sci [Colch] 1964;27:195-207.
7. Louvet JP, Gouarre M, Salandini AM, Boulard CL. Hypothyroidism and anovulation. Lancet 1979;1:1032.
8. Longcope C. The male and female reproductive systems in thyrotoxicosis. In: Baverman LE, Utiger RD, editors. Werner and Ingbar's the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 6th edition. New York: Lippincott; 1991. p. 828-35.
9. Goldsmith RE, Sturgis SH, Lerman J, Stanbury JB. The menstrual pattern of thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1952;18:846-55.
10. Joshi JV, Bhandarkar SD, Chandha M, Balaiah D, Shah R. Menstrual irregularities and lactation failure may precede thyroid dysfunction or goiter. J Postgrad Med 1993;39:137-41.
11. Akande EO, Hockaday TR. Plasma concentration of gonadotropins, estrogen and progesterone in thyrotoxic women. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1975;82:541-51.
12. Thomas R, Reid RL. Thyroid disease and reproductive dysfunction: a review. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70:789-98.
13. Southren AL, Olivio J, Gorelon GG, et al. The conversion of androgens to estrogens in hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1974;38:207.
14. Zakarija M, MacKenzie JM. Pregnancy associated changes in the thyroid stimulating antibody in Grave's disease and the relationship to neonatal hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983;57:1036-40.
15. Goldsmith R, Sturgis S, Lerman J, et al. Menstrual pattern in thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1952;12:846.
16. Daniels GH. Thyroid disease and pregnancy: a clinical overview. Endocr Pract 1995;1:287-301.
17. Davis LE, Lucas MJ, Hankins GDV, Roark ML, Cunningham FG. Thyrotoxicosis complicating pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:63-70.
18. Pontikides N, Kaltsas TH, Krassas GE. The LH, FSH, PRL and progesterone levels in thyrotoxic female patients before and after treatment [abstract]. J Endocrinol Invest 1990;13(suppl 2):164.
19. Longcope C. The male and female reproductive systems in hypothyroidism. In: Baverman LE, Utiger RD, editors. Werner and Ingbar's the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text, 6th edition. New York: Lippincott; 1991. p. 1052-5.
20. Camargo CA. Hypothyroidism and goiter during pregnancy. In: Brody SA, Ueland K, editors. Endocrine disorders of pregnancy. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange; 1989. p. 165-76.
21. Greer MA. Disorders of the thyroid. In: Stein JH, editor. Internal medicine. 2nd edition. Boston: Little Brown; 1987. p. 1918-40.
22. Hoffenberg R. Thyroid disorders. In: Wetherall DJ, Ledingham JGG, Warrell DA, editors. Oxford textbook of medicine. 2nd edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford Medical Publications; 1987. p. 1030-48.
23. Wilansky DL, Greisman B. Early hypothyroidism in patients with menorrhagia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:673-7.
24. Brenner PF. Differential diagnosis of abnormal uterine bleeding. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:766-9.
25. Anderson DC. Sex hormone binding globulin. Clin Endocrinol 1974;3:69-96.
26. Akande EO. Plasma concentrations of gonadotropins, estrogen and progesterone in hypothyroid women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975;82:552-6.
27. Tachman ML, Guthrie GP. Hypothyroidism: diversity of presentation. Endocr Rev 1984;5:456-65.
28. Ansell JE. The blood in hypothyroidism. In: Baverman LE, Utiger RD, editors. Werner and Ingbar's the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 6th edition. New York: Lippincott; 1991. p. 1022-6.
29. Winters SJ, Berga SL. Gonadal dysfunction in patients with throid disorders. Endocrinologist 1997;7:167-73.
30. Edwards CRW, Forsyth IA, Besser GM, Amenorrhea, glactorrhea, and primary hypothyroidism with high circulating levels of prolactin. BMJ 1971;3:462-4.
31. Tolino A, Nicotra M, Romano L, Petrone A, Langella L. Subclinical hypothyroidism and hyperprolactinemia. Acta Eur Fertil 1991;22:275-7.
32. Honbo KS, VanHerle AJ, Kellet KA. Serum prolactin in untreated primary hypothyroidism. Am J Med 1978;64:782.
33. Kleinberg DL, Noel G, Frantz AG. Galactorrhea: a study of 235 cases. N Engl J Med 1977;296:589.
34. Yamada T, Tsuki T, Ikejiri K, et al. Volume of sella turcica in normal subjects and in patients with primary hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:87.
35. DelPozo E, Wyss H, Tolis G, et al. Prolactin and deficient luteal function. Obstet Gynecol 1979;53:282.
36. Bohnet HG, Fiedler K, Leidenberger FA. Subclinical hypothyroidism and infertility. Lancet 1981;2:1278.
37. Strickland DM, Whitted WA. Screening infertile women for subclinical hypothyroidism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:262-3.
38. Montoro M, Collea JV, Frasier SD, Mestman JH. Successful outcome of pregnancy in women with hypothyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1981;94:31-4.
39. Davis LE, Leveko KJ, Cunningham FG. Hypothyrodism complicating pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1988;72:108-12.
40. Man EB, Jones WS, Holden RH, Mellitis ED. Thyroid dysfunction in human pregnancy. VIII. Retardation of progeny aged 7 years: relationships to maternal age and maternal thyroid function. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;111:905-16.
41. Man EB. Maternal hypothyroxinaemia: development of 4 and 7 year old offspring. In: Fisher DA, Burrow GN, editors. Perinatal thyroid physiology and disease. New York: Raven Press; 1975. p. 117-29.
42. Balen AH, Kurtz AB. Successful outcome of pregnancy with severe hypothyroidism. Case report and literature review. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:536-9.
43. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Engl J Med 1999;341:549-55.
44. Winikoff D, Malinek M. The predictive value of thyroid "test profile" in habitual abortion. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975;82:760.
45. Greenman GW, Gabrielson MD, Howard-Flanders J, et al. Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1962;267:426.
46. Ares S, Escobar-Morreale HF, Duran JQS, et al. Neonatal hypothyroxinemia: effects of iodine intake and premature birth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:1704-12.
47. Ghazeeri GS, Kutteh WH. Autoimmune factors in reproductive function. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2001;13:287-91.
48. Kutteh WH, Yetman DL, Carr AC, et al. Increased prevalence of antithyroid antibodies identified in women with recurrent pregnancy loss but not in women undergoing assisted reproduction. Fertil Steril 1999;71:843-8.
49. Kutteh WH, Schoolcraft WB, Scott RT Jr. Antithyroid antibodies do not affect pregnancy outcome in women undergoing assisted reproduction. Hum Reprod 1999;14:2886-90.
50. Bussen S, Steck T, Dietl J. Increased prevalence of thyroid antibodies in euthyroid women with a history of recurrent in-vitro fertilization failure. Hum Reprod 2000;15:545-8.
51. Matalon ST, Blank M, Oroy A, Shoenfeld Y. The association between anti-thyroid antibodies and pregnancy loss. Am J Reprod Immunol 2001;45:72-7.
52. Stagnaro-Green A, Roman SH, Cobin RH, Harazy E, Davies TF. Detection of at risk pregnancy by means of highly sensitive assays for thyroid autoantibodies. JAMA 1990;264:1422-5.
53. Lejeune B, Grun JP, De Nayer P, Servais G, Glinoer D. Antithyroid antibodies underlying thyroid abnormalities and miscarriage or pregnancy-induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993;100:669-72.
54. Pratt D, Novoyny M, Kaberlein G, Dudkieicz A, Gleicher N. Antithyroid antibodies and the association with non-organ specific antibodies in recurrent pregnancy loss. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:837-41.
55. Pratt DE, Kabarelein G, Dudkiewicz A, Karande V, Gleicher N. The association of antithyroid antibodies in euthyroid nonpregnant women with recurent first trimester abortions in the next pregnancy. Fertil Steril 1993;60:1001-5.
56. Dendrinos S, Papasteriades C, Tarassi K, Christodoulakos G, Prasinos G, Creatsas G. Thyroid autoimmunity in patients with recurrent spontaneous miscarriages. Gynecol Endocrinol 2000;14:270-4.
57. Glinoer D. Thyroid autoimmunity and spontaneous abortion. Fertil Steril 1999;72:373-74.
58. Toyoshima K, Makino T, Sugi T, et al. Correlation between trimester of fetal wastage and anti-cardiolipin antibody titer. Int J Fertil 1991;63:89-93.
59. Harger JH. Etiology of recurrent pregnancy losses and outcome of subsequent pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1983;62:574-81.
60. Magero M, Zoli A, Atomonte L, Mirone L, Barini LSA, Scuder F. The association of silent hyroiditis and active systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1992;10:67-70.
61. Kaider AS, Kaider BD, Janowicz PB, Roussev RG. Immunodiagnostic evaluation in women with reproductive failure. Am J Rep Immunol 1999;42:335-46.
62. Stewart A, Kers AM, Krasnow JS, Brekosky J, Deloia JA. Endometrial leukocytes are altered numerically and functionally in women with implantation defects. Am J Rep Immunol 1998;39:1-11.
63. Glinoer D, Riahi M, Grun JP, Kinthaet J. Risk of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnant women with asymptomatic thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:197-204.
64. Holdaway IM, Rajasoorya C. Epidemiology of acromegaly. Pituitary 1999;2:29-41.
65. Molitch ME. Clinical manifestations of acromegaly. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1992;21:597-614.
66. Bloch B. Pituitary tumours in pregnancy: a case report. S Afr Med J 1979;55:57.
67. Melmed S. Acromegaly. In: Melmed S, editor. The pituitary. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell; 1995. p. 413-42.
68. Jadresic A, Banks LM, Child DF, et al. The acromegaly syndrome: relation between clinical features, growth hormone values and radiological characteristics of the pituitary tumors. Q J Med 1982;51:189.
69. Nagamani M, Lingold JC, Gomez LG. Hyperthecosis of the ovaries in acromegaly. Obstet Gynecol 1980;56:258.
70. Frohman LA. Therapeutic options in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72:1175.
71. Abelove WA, Rupp JJ, Paschkis KE. Acromegaly and pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1954;14:32.
72. Fisch RO, Prem KA, Feinberg SB, et al. Acromegaly in a gravida and her infant. Obstet Gynecol 1974;43:861.
73. Ezzat S. Living with acromegaly. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1992;21:753-60.
74. Elias KA, Weiner RI. Inhibition of estrogen-induced anterior pituitary enlargement and arteriogenesis by bromocriptine in Fischer 344 rats. Endocrinology 1987;120:480.
75. Yap AS, Clouston WM, Mortimer RH, Drake RF. Acromegaly first diagnosed in pregnancy: the role of bromocriptine therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:477-8.
76. Landolt AM, Schimd J, Karlsson ERC, Boerlin V. Successful pregnancy in a previously infertile woman treated with SMS-201-995 for acromegaly. N Engl J Med 1989;320:671-2.
77. Montini M, Pagani G, Gianola D, Pagani MD. Acromegaly and primary amenorrhea: ovulation and pregnancy induced by SMS 201-995 and bromocriptine. J Endocrinol Invest 1990;13:193.
78. Herman-Bonert V, Seliverstov M, Melmed S. Pregnancy in acromegaly: successful therapeutic outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:727-31.
79. Mozas J, Ocon E, Lopez de la Torre M, Surez AM, Miranda JA, Herruzo AJ. Successful pregnancy in a woman with acromegaly treated with somatostatin analog (octreotide) prior to surgical resection. Int J Obstet Gynecol 1999;65:71-3.
80. Takeuchi K, Funakoshi T, Oomori S, Maruo T. Successful pregnancy in an acromegalic woman treated with octreotide. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:848.
81. De Menis E, Gussoni G. Uneventful pregnancy in an acromegalic patient treated with slow-release lanreotide: a case report. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:1489.
82. Hierl T, Ziegler R, Kasperk C. Pregnancy in persistent acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol 2000;53:262-3.
83. Nasser M. Octreotide treatment of acromegaly during pregnancy. Mayo Clin Proc 2002;77:297-8.
84. Colao A, Merola B, Ferone D, Lombardi G. Acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2777-81.
85. Bigazzi M, Ronga R, Lalcranjan I, et al. A pregnancy in an acromegalic woman during bromocriptine treatment: effects on growth hormone and prolactin in the maternal, fetal, and amniotic compartments. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979;48:9-12.
86. Caron P, Gerbeau C, Pradayrol L. Maternal-fetal transfer of octreotide. N Engl J Med 1995;333:601-2.
87. Plockinger U, Dienemann D, Quabbe HJ. Gastrointestinal side effects of octreotide during long-term treatment of acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:1658.
88. White P. Diabetes in childhood and adolescence. Lea and Fibiger. 1932. p. 110-1.
89. Kjaer K, Hagen C, Sando SH, Eshoj O. Epidemiology of menarche and menstrual disturbances in an unselected group of women with insulin-dependent diabetus compared to controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;75:524-9.
90. O'Harc JA, Eichold BH, Vignati L. Hypogonadotropic secondary amenorrhea in diabetes: effects of central opiate blockade and improved metabolic control. Am J Med 1987;83:1080-4.
91. Bergqvist N. The gonadal function in female diabetics. Acta Endocrinol 1954;19:3-20.
92. Yashaya A, Orvieto R, Dicker D, Karp M, Ben-Rafael Z. Menstrual characteristics of women suffering from insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Int J Fertil 1995;40:269-73.
93. Rzepka I, Prochorow M, Tolwinska Z. Menstruation in diabetic girls. Ginekol Pol 1977;46:157-61.
94. Distiller LA, Sagel J, Morley JE, et al. Pituitary responsiveness to luteinizing hormone releasing hormone on insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1975;24:37-80.
95. Djursing H, Hagen C, Nyholm HC, et al. Gonadotropin responses to gonadotopin-releasing hormone and prolactin responses to thyrotropin-releasing hormone and metoclopramide in women with amenorhea and insulin-dependent diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983;56:1016-21.
96. South SA, Asplin CM, Carlsen EC, et al. Alterations in luteinizing hormone secretory activity in women with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and secondary amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;76:1048-53.
97. Dixit PK, Lazarow A. Effect of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia on the glycogen content of the pituitary and adrenal glands of normal, subdiabetic and diabetic rats. Endocrinology 1962;71:745-51.
98. Goodner CJ, Freinkel N. Studies of anterior pituitary tissue in vitro: effects of insulin and experimental diabetes mellitus upon carbohydrate metabolism. J Clin Invest 1961;40:261-72.
99. La Marca A, Morgante G. De Leo V. Evaluation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in amenorrheic women with insulin-dependent diabetes. Hum Reprod 1999;14:298-302.
100. Diamond MP, Moley KH, Pellicer A, et al. Effects of streptozotocin- and alloxan-induced diabetes mellitus on mouse follicular and early embryo development. J Reprod Fertil 1989;86:1.
101. Moley KH, Vaughn WK, DeCherney AH, Diamond MP. Effect of diabetes mellitus on mouse pre-implantation embryo development. J Reprod Fertil 1991;93:325-32.
102. Shum L, Sadler TW. Recovery by mouse embryos following teartogenic exposure to ketosis. Diabetologia 1991;34:289.
103. Zusman I, Yaffe P, Ornoy A. Effects of metabolic factors in the diabetic state on the in vitro development of pre-implantation mouse embryos. Teratology 1987;35:77.
104. Moley KH, Vaughn WK, Diamond MP. Manifestations of diabetes mellitus on mouse pre-implantation embryo development: effect of elevated concentration of metabolic intermediates. Hum Reprod 1994;9:113-21.
105. Reis RA, DeCosta EJ, Gerbie AB. Pregnancy in the diabetic woman. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1950;76:1148.
106. Mills JL, Baker L, Goldman AS. Malformations in infants of diabetic mothers occur before the seventh gestational week. Implications for treatment. Diabetes 1979;28:292.
107. Mills JL, Knopp RH, Simpson JL, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development-Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Project: lack of relation of increased malformation rates in infants of diabetic mothers to glycemic control during organogenesis. N Engl J Med 1988;318:671.
108. Kitzmiller JL, Cloherty JP, Younger MD, et al. Diabetic pregnancy and perinatal morbidity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978;13:560.
109. Jovanovic L, Drozin M, Peterson CM. Effect of euglycemia on the outcome of pregnancy in insulin dependent diabetic women as compared with normal control subjects. Am J Med 1981;71:921.
110. Fuhrmann K, Reiher H, Semmler K, et al. Prevention of congenital malformations in infants of insulin dependent diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care 1983;6:219.
111. Fuhrmann K, Reiher H, Semmler K, et al. The effect of intensified conventional insulin therapy before and during pregnancy on the malformation rate in offspring of diabetic mothers. Exp Clin Endocrinol 1984;83:173.
112. Kalter H. Diabetes and spontaneous abortion: a historical review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:1243.
113. Miodovnik M, Lavin JP, Knowles HC, et al. Spontaneous abortion among insulin dependent diabetic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;150:372.
114. Miodovnik M, Skillman C, Holroyde JC, et al. Elevated maternal glycohemoglobin in early pregnancy and spontaneous abortion among insulin dependent diabetic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:439-42.
115. Dicker D, Feldberg D, Samuel N, et al. Spontaneous abortion in patients with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: the effect of preconceptional diabetic control. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158:1161.
116. Atchley DW. On diabetic acidosis: detailed study of electrolyte balance following withdrawal and re-establishment of insulin therapy. J Clin Invest 1933;12:297.
117. Mimouni F, Midoovnik M, Tsand R, et al. Decreased maternal serum magnesium concentration and adverse fetal outcome in insulin dependent diabetic women. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70:85.
118. Hurley LS, Cosens C, Theriavlt LL. Teratogenic effects of magnesium deficiency in rats. J Nutr 1976;106:254.
119. Glass RH, Golbus MS. Habitual abortion. Fertil Steril 1978;29:257.
120. Crane JP, Wahl N. The role of maternal diabetes in repetitive spontaneous abortion. Fertil Steril 1981;36:477.
121. Brown ZA, Mills JL, Metzger BE, et al. Early sonographic evaluation for fetal growth delay and congenital malformations in pregnancies complicated by insulin-requiring diabetes. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 1992;15:613-9.
122. Pederson JF, Molsted Pederson L. Early fetal growth delay detected by ultrasound marks increased risk of congenital malformation in diabetic pregnancy. BMJ 1981;283:269-71.
123. Hughes IA, Read GF. Menarche and subsequent ovarian function in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Horm Res 1982; 16:100-6.
124. Klingensmith GJ, Garcia SC, Jones HW, Migeon CJ, Blizzard RM. Glucocorticoid treatment of girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: effects of height, sexual maturation and fertility. J Pediatr 1977;90:996-1004.
125. Rosenfield RL, Bickel S, Razdan AK. Amenorrhea related to progestin excess in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Obstet Gynecol 1980;56:208-15.
126. Helleday J, Siwers B, Ritzen EM, Carlstrom K. Subnormal androgen and elevated progesterone levels in women treated for congenital virilizing 21-hydroxylase deficieny. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;76:933-6.
127. Eden JA. Two cases of partial 21-hydroxylase deficiency associated with progesterone excess. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynecol 1989;29:268-70.
128. Holmes-Walker DJ, Conway GS, Hoour JW, Rumsby G, Jacobs HS. Menstrual disturbance and hypersecretion of progesterone in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Clin Endocrinol 1995;43:291-6.
129. Landgren BM. Mechanism of action of gestagens. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1990;32:95-110.
130. Mulaikal RM, Migeon J, Rock JA. Fertility rates in female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. N Engl J Med 1987;316:178-82.
131. Blumberg DL, Reggiardo D, Sklar C, David R. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia and fertility. N Engl J Med 1988;319:951.
132. Meyer-Bahlburg HFL. What causes low rates of child-bearing in congenital adrenal hyperplasia? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:1844-7.
133. Kuhnle U, Bullinger M, Schwartz HP. The quality of life in adult female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: a comprehensive study of impact of genital.malformations and chronic disease on female patients life. Eur J Pediatr 1995;154:708-16.
134. Bradford JW. Pharmacological treatment of the paraphilias. Am Psychiatr Press Rev Psychiatry 1995;14:755-77.
135. Feldman S, Billaud L, Thalabard JC, et al. Fertility in women with late-onset adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;74:635-9.
136. Irvine WJ, Barnes EW. Adrenocortical insufficiency. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1972; 1:549-94.
137. Betterle C, Rossi A, Dalla Pria S, et al. Premature ovarian failure: autoimmunity and natural history. Clin Endocrinol [Oxf] 1993;39:35-43.
138. Ahonen P, Miettinen A, Perheentupa J. Adrenal and steroidal cell antibodies in patients with autoimmune polyglandular disease type I and risk of adrenocortical and ovarian failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;64:494-500.
139. Zellison PM, Bast EJ, Croughs RJ. Associated autoimmunity in Addison's disease. J Autoimmun 1995;8:121-30.
140. Brent F. Addison's disease in pregnancy. Am J Surg 1950;79:645-52.
141. Drucker D, Shumak S, Angel A. Schmidt syndrome presenting with intrauterine growth retardation and Addisonian crises. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;149:229.
142. Nader S. Other endocrine disorders of pregnancy. In: Creasy RK, Resnik R, editors. Maternal fetal medicine. 4th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999. p. 1015-37.
143. Aron DC, Findling JW, Tyrrell JB. Cushing's disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1987;16:705-30.
144. Plotz CM, Knowlton AI, Raan C. The natural history of Cushing's syndrome. Am J Med 1952;13:597-614.
145. Buescher MA, McClamrock HD, Adashi EY. Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:130-7.
146. Aron DC, Schnall AM, Sheeler LR. Cushing's syndrome and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;162:244-52.
147. Boccuzzi G, Angeli A, Bisbocci D, Fonzo D, Gaidano GP, Ceresa F. Effect of synthetic luteinizing hormone releasing-hormone (LHRH) on the release of gonadotropins in Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975;40:892-5.
148. Sakakura M, Takebe K, Nakagawa S. Inhibition of luteinizing hormone secertion induced by synthetic LRH by long-term treatment with glucocorticoids in human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975;40:774-9.
149. Fitzgerald PA, Aron DC, Findling JW, et al. Cushing's disease: transient secondary adrenal insufficiency after selective removal of pituitary microadenomas. Evidence for a pituitary origin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;54:413-22.
150. Jurney TH, deRuyter H, Vigersky RA. Cushing's disease presenting as amenorrhea with hyperprolactinemia - report of two cases. Clin Endocrinol 1981;14:539-46.
151. Lamberts SWJ, DeLange SA, Stefanko S. Adrenocorticotropin-secreting pituitary adenomas originate from the anterior or the intermediate lobe in Cushing's disease: differences in regulation of hormone secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;54:286-91.
152. Rodriguez S, Alger M, Forsbach G, Contreras SN, Canales ES, Zarate A. Amenorrhea-galactorrhea associated with Cushing's disease due to pituitary tumor. J Endocrinol Invest 1981;4:37-40.
153. Grimes EM, Fayez JA, Miller GL. Cushing's syndrome and pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1973;42:550-9.
154. Koerten JM, Morales WJ, Washington SR III, Castaldo TW. Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy: a case report and literature review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;154:626-8.
155. Parra A, Cruz-Krohn J. Intercurrent Cushing's syndrome and pregnancy. Am J Med 1966;40:961-6.
156. Gormley MJJ, Hadden DR, Kennedy TL, Montgomery DAD, Murnahan GA, Sgeridan B. Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy - treatment with metyrapone. Clin Endocrinol 1982;16:283-93.
157. Tuimala R, Heinonen PK, Markkula H, Salmi J. Low serum oestriol and Cushing's syndorme during pregnancy. Ann Chir Gynaecol 1985;74(Suppl 197):61-3.
158. Semple CG, McEwan H, Teasdle GM, McNicol AM, Thompson JA. Recurrence of Cushing's disease in pregnancy. Case report. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;92:295-8.
159. Bevan JS, Gough MH, Gillmer MDG, Burke CW. Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy: the timing of definitive treatment. Clin Endocrinol 1987;27:225-33.
160. MacGibbon AL, Brieger GM. Cushing syndrome in pregnancy secondary to an adrenal cortical adenoma. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;35:217-9.
161. Cousins L, Rigg L, Hollingsworth D, et al. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of the circadian rhythm of cortisol in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:411-6.
162. Taft P, Martin FIR, Melick R. Cushing's syndrome - a review of the response to treatment in 42 patients. Aust Ann Med 1970;4:295-303.
163. Hanson TJ, Ballonoff LB, Northcutt RC. Aminoglutethamide and pregnancy. JAMA 1974;280:963-4.
164. Sonino N. The use of ketokonazole as an inhibitor of steroid production. N Engl J Med 1987;317:812-8.
165. McEvoy GK, editor. Drug information 87. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Hospital Pharmacists; 1987. p. 1874.