Effecting a Progressive Presidency: Roosevelt, Taft, and the Pursuit of Strategic Resources

Studies in American Political Development

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 61-81

  Arnold, Peri E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0042879927     PISSN: 0898588X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0898588x03000063     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Sidney Milkis, The President and the Parties: The Transformation of the American Party System Since the New Deal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 8.
2. William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), 327.
3. Michael Beschloss, "Imperial Presidency," Newsweek, January 9, 1995, 45.
4. John Milton Cooper, Jr., Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900-1920 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), xv.
5. For examples of research on the impulses for Progressive Era reform, see James Morone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York: Basic Books, 1990); on the economic stimuli to reform, and policy responses, see Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); the intellectual themes of Progressive reform are treated in James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chap. 9.; and the transformations of the party system that were simultaneous with the Progressive Era are traced by Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
6. For examples of research on the impulses for Progressive Era reform, see James Morone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York: Basic Books, 1990); on the economic stimuli to reform, and policy responses, see Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); the intellectual themes of Progressive reform are treated in James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chap. 9.; and the transformations of the party system that were simultaneous with the Progressive Era are traced by Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
7. For examples of research on the impulses for Progressive Era reform, see James Morone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York: Basic Books, 1990); on the economic stimuli to reform, and policy responses, see Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); the intellectual themes of Progressive reform are treated in James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chap. 9.; and the transformations of the party system that were simultaneous with the Progressive Era are traced by Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
8. For examples of research on the impulses for Progressive Era reform, see James Morone, The Democratic Wish: Popular Participation and the Limits of American Government (New York: Basic Books, 1990); on the economic stimuli to reform, and policy responses, see Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); the intellectual themes of Progressive reform are treated in James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chap. 9.; and the transformations of the party system that were simultaneous with the Progressive Era are traced by Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
9. Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to Bill Clinton (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 29-32 and chap. 3.
10. Robert C. Lieberman, "Ideas, Institutions, and Political Order: Explaining Political Change," American Political Science Review, vol. 96 (2002): 703-4.
11. Sidney M. Milkis and Michael Nelson, The American Presidency: Origins and Development, 1776-1990 (Washington: CQ Press, 1990), 209.
12. Woodrow Wilson, Congressional Government (1885; Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 46.
13. Woodrow Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1908), 70.
14. Henry Jones Ford, The Rise and Growth of American Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1898), 275.
15. Charles Beard, American Government and Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1910), 206-7.
16. For profiles of these presidencies, see Lewis Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991); Paolo Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973); and Kendrick A. Clements, The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992).
17. For profiles of these presidencies, see Lewis Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991); Paolo Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973); and Kendrick A. Clements, The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992).
18. For profiles of these presidencies, see Lewis Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991); Paolo Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973); and Kendrick A. Clements, The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992).
19. David Mayhew, "Presidential Elections and Policy Change," in American Presidential Elections: Process, Policy, and Political Change, ed. Harvey L. Schantz (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 158-61.
20. Herbert Hoover's White House saw the first attempts at articulating a division of political and policy labor among personnel. See Karen Hult and Charles Walcott, Governing the White House: From Hoover Through LBJ (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).
21. Modern war lent its own dynamic for the presidency and the state's capacities. See Marc Allen Eisner, From Warfare State to Welfare State: World War I. Compensatory State Building, and the Limits of Modern Order (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000).
22. Larry Berman, The Office of Management and Budget and the Presidency, 1921-1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), chaps. 1-2.
23. Fred Greenstein, "Toward a Modern Presidency," in Leadership in the Modern Presidency (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 3-4.
24. Terry Moe, "The Politicized Presidency," in The New Direction in American Politics, ed. John Chubb and Paul Peterson (Washington; Brookings Institution, 1985), 237.
25. Regarding claims of new authority, Stephen Skowronek writes: "Before a president can formulate a strategy for action, he needs to construe his place in history and stake claim to certain warrants for the exercise of power within it" (Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make, 24). I have addressed the warrant claims for novel leadership by the Progressive Era presidents in "Articulating a Warrant for Policy Leadership: Roosevelt, Taft, Wilson, and the Progressive Presidency," paper delivered to the 2001 meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA.
26. Charles Lindblom, "Still Muddling, Not Yet Through," Public Administration Review, vol. 39 (1979): 517-26.
27. K.J. Radford, Strategic and Tactic Decisions, 2d ed. (Toronto: University Press of Canada, 1988), 3.
28. Gary J. Miller, "Abnormal Politics: Possibilities for Presidential Leadership," paper delivered to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 1990, 44.
29. For a good overall treatment of the political tensions and disruption of the Progressive Era, see Cooper, Pivotal Decades, 62-89.
30. John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2d ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 1995), 198-99.
31. Both Roosevelt and Taft won clear victories. Roosevelt's 1904 margin of victory was larger than Taft's in 1908, and the resulting divisions in Congress were also somewhat different. In 1904, Roosevelt ran against the drab Alton Parker, winning 56.4 percent of the vote. In 1908, Taft ran against the vibrant William Jennings Bryan, winning 51.58 percent of the vote. The 59th Congress elected with Roosevelt in 1904 had 250 Republicans against 136 Democrats in the House and 57 Republicans against 33 Democrats in the Senate. The 61st Congress elected with Taft had 219 Republicans versus 172 Democrats in the House and 61 Republicans versus 32 Democrats in the Senate. Roosevelt polled more popular votes than Taft but against a weaker opponent.
32. Theodore Roosevelt, Autobiography (New York: Scribner's, 1913), 197.
33. William Howard Taft, Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 138.
34. William Howard Taft, "Speech of Acceptance," July 28, 1908, in The Collected Works of William Howard Tafl, ed. David H. Burton, 4 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2002), 3:7.
35. Peri E. Arnold, Making the Managerial Presidency: Comprehensive Reorganization Planning, 1905-1996 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 44-47.
36. Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), chap. 1; Leonard White, The Republican Era (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 1-109.
37. Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), chap. 1; Leonard White, The Republican Era (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 1-109.
38. Leonard White, The Republican Era, 93.
39. Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 297.
40. See Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967).
41. See Melvin Laracey, Presidents and the People: The Partisan Story of Going Public (College Station; Texas A&M Press, 2002), chaps. 2-3.
42. Laracey, Presidents and the People, 134-38.
43. Keller, Affairs of State, 580.
44. Until the early twentieth century, a world gold shortage was a constraint on the national currencies that were backed by gold. Thus, silver was necessary also for the backing of currency; however, its far greater availability threatened inflation if there were no international agreements fixing a relationship between the value of gold as an equivalent of a value of silver. See Keller, Affairs of State, 376-84.
45. William McKinley, "Inaugural Address," A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the President, 20 vols. (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1917), 13:6237.
46. See John Gerring, "Party Ideology in America: The National Republican Chapter, 1828-1924," Studies in American Political Development, 11 (1997): 44-108.
47. Kirk Porter and Donald Johnson, National Party Platforms, 1840-1956 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1956), 107.
48. McKinley, "Inaugural Address," A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 13:6240.
49. McKinley, "Inaugural Address," 13:6240, and 1888 Republican platform in Johnson and Porter, National Party Platforms, 80.
50. McKinley, "Inaugural Address," 13:6240, and 1888 Republican platform in Johnson and Porter, National Party Platforms, 80.
51. Radford, Strategic and Tactical Decisions, 3, 31-32; see also Irving L. Janis, Crucial Decisions: Leadership in Policy Making and Crisis Management (New York: Free Press, 1989), chap. 7.
52. Radford, Strategic and Tactical Decisions, 3, 31-32; see also Irving L. Janis, Crucial Decisions: Leadership in Policy Making and Crisis Management (New York: Free Press, 1989), chap. 7.
53. Richard Neustadt, Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents (New York: Free Press, 1990), 52.
54. Erwin Hargrove, The President as Leader: Appealing to the Better Angels of Our Nature (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998) , 2.
55. John Burke and Fred Greenstein, How Presidents Test Reality (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1989).
56. Burke and Greenstein, 266.
57. Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
58. Hargrove, The President as Leader, 23.
59. See Dennis C. Williams, God's Wilds: John Muir's Vision of Nature (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2002) ; Keller, Affairs of State, 384-94; and Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).
60. See Dennis C. Williams, God's Wilds: John Muir's Vision of Nature (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2002) ; Keller, Affairs of State, 384-94; and Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).
61. See Dennis C. Williams, God's Wilds: John Muir's Vision of Nature (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2002) ; Keller, Affairs of State, 384-94; and Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).
62. Porter and Johnson, National Party Platforms, 1840-1956, 123.
63. McKinley, "Annual Message to Congress," December 3, 1900. A Compilation of Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 13:6452.
64. Roosevelt, "Annual Message to Congress," December 3, 1901, A Compilation of Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 13:6655.
65. Morton Keller, Regulating the New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 158.
66. See Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development, 1880-1980 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1984). Like business regulation, conservation gave Roosevelt an opportunity to at least indirectly address issues that were dominated by the Democrats under William J. Bryant's leadership.
67. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 430.
68. See Donald J. Pisani, "Forests and Conservation, 18651890," in Water, Land and Law in the West: The Limits of Public Policy, 1850-1920, ed. Pisani (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 124-40.
69. Roosevelt, "First Annual Message," A Compilation of Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 13:6656.
70. Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 111-13.
71. See Donald J. Pisani, "State vs. Nation: Federal Reclamation and Water Rights in the Progressive Era," in Water, Land and Law in the West, 38-49.
72. Roosevelt, "Fourth Annual Message," A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 13:6908.
73. Ibid., 6909-10.
74. Ibid., 6910.
75. Paul Russell Cutright, Theodore Roosevelt: The Making of a Conservationist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 238.
76. See Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacity, 1877-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Arnold, Making the Managerial Presidency, chap. 1.
77. See Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacity, 1877-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Arnold, Making the Managerial Presidency, chap. 1.
78. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960), 710.
79. J.Y. Brinton, from an article in the University of Pennsylvania Law Review (January 1913), qtd. in Lloyd Short, The Development of National Administrative Organization in the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1923), 23.
80. J.Y. Brinton, from an article in the University of Pennsylvania Law Review (January 1913), qtd. in Lloyd Short, The Development of National Administrative Organization in the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1923), 23.
81. William C. Chase, The American Law School and the Rise of Administrative Government (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 10.
82. Daniel P. Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862-1928 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 17.
83. Harold T. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot: Private and Public Forester (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970).
84. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 429.
85. Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy, 255-89.
86. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 313.
87. November 27, 1899, Diary, Papers of Gifford Pinchot, Library of Congress.
88. See Pisani, "Reclamation and Social Engineering in the Progressive Era," in Water, Land, and Law in the West, 180-94. Also see Pisani's discussion of the alliance between forest and water specialists that was reflected in the Pinchot-Newell relationship. In important respects, Roosevelt's conservation policy initiative reflected that alliance's preferences (ibid., 141-58).
89. See Pisani, "Reclamation and Social Engineering in the Progressive Era," in Water, Land, and Law in the West, 180-94. Also see Pisani's discussion of the alliance between forest and water specialists that was reflected in the Pinchot-Newell relationship. In important respects, Roosevelt's conservation policy initiative reflected that alliance's preferences (ibid., 141-58).
90. Letter, Gifford Pinchot to Henry L. Stimson, September 27, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt - 1901, Box 84, Papers of Gifford Pinchot, Library of Congress.
91. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 429.
92. U.S. Stat. L, 26; Paul Russell Cutright, 216.
93. U.S. Stat. L, 26; Paul Russell Cutright, 216.
94. See Daniel L. Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy, 280-85.
95. Entry, June 7, 1903, Diary, Papers of Gifford Pinchot, Library of Congress.
96. 33 Stat. L. 628.
97. Roosevelt, Autobiography, 402.
98. Ibid., 440.
99. Letter, Theodore Roosevelt to Gifford Pinchot, March 2, 1909, Roosevelt - 1909, Box 714, Papers of Gifford Pinchot.
100. Matthew J. Dickenson, "Neustadt and New Institutionalists: A New Insight on Presidential Power?" unpublished paper, Harvard University, May 15, 2000, at: www.cbrss.harvard.edu/events/ppbw/papers/dickinson.pdf.
101. For an application of this argument to Roosevelt's policy initiative in another area, see Peri E. Arnold, "Policy Leadership in the Progressive Presidency: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Policy and His Search for Strategic Resources," Studies in American Political Development, 10 (1996): 333-59.
102. See Stephen Ponder, "Publicity in the Interest of the People, Theodore Roosevelt's Conservation Crusade," Presidential Studies Quarterly, 20 (1990): 547-55.
103. Keller, Regulating a New Economy, 159.
104. Qtd. in Cutright, Theodore Roosevelt, 228.
105. Ibid., 229.
106. This formulation follows Daniel E. Ponder, Good Advice: Information and Policy Making in the White House (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2000), 16.
107. On the expanding utility of media for presidents in this era, see George Juergens, News From the White House: The President-Press Relationship in the Progressive Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
108. "President McKinley's Death," The Nation, 73 (1901), 218.
109. Bruce Miroff, Icons of Democracy American Leaders as Heroes, Aristocrats, Dissenters, and Democrats (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 158.
110. Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make, 228-33.
111. John Morton Blum, The Progressive Presidents (New York: Norton, 1980), 28.
112. Gerring, "Party Ideology in America," 57.
113. Paul Wolman, Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897-1912 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), chap. 1.
114. Theodore Roosevelt to James Ford Rhodes, November 29, 1904, in The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Eking Morison (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), vol. 3, 1049. Morison suggests that Roosevelt raised the tariff issue with Congress as a bargaining instrument, gaining support for railroad legislation in trade for abandoning the quest for tariff reform. See note, 1028.
115. Burton, ed., Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:16.
116. Porter and Johnson, National Party Platforms, 158.
117. Henry Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, 2 vols. (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939), 1:421.
118. Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft, 57.
119. Burton, Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:45-46.
120. Qtd. in Wolman, Most Favored Nation, 93.
121. Donald F. Anderson, William Howard Taft, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973), 96-104.
122. Taft to Joseph L. Bristow, qtd. in Anderson, William Howard Taft, 100.
123. Coletta, William Howard Taft, 58-60.
124. Letter, Roosevelt to Taft, March 19, 1903, in Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:453.
125. Coletta, William Howard Taft, 68-70.
126. Burton, Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:57.
127. Ibid., 56.
128. Keller, Affairs of State, 381.
129. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 61.
130. Anderson, William Howard Taft, 105.
131. Qtd. in Judith Icke Anderson, William Howard Taft, (New York: Norton, 1981), 179.
132. Archie Butt, Taft and Roosevelt: The Intimate Letters of Archie Butt, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1930), 1:40.
133. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 62.
134. Ibid., 63.
135. Butt, Taft and Roosevelt, 1:63.
136. Letter, Taft to Nellie Taft, July 11, 1901, Series 7, Papers of William Howard Taft, microfilm edition, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
137. Letter, Taft to Mrs. Charles Taft, July 18, 1909, ibid.
138. "Message to Congress," June 16, 1909, in The Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:133. For Taft's planning of this tax initiative, see letter, Herbert Knox Smith to Taft, July 19, 1909, case file 3, Papers of William Howard Taft, Series 5, microfilm edition.
139. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 17:7783.
140. Butt, Taft and Roosevelt, 2:198.
141. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 75.
142. William Howard Taft to Charles Taft, August 1, 1909, Series 7, Papers of William Howard Taft, microfilm edition, Library of Congress.
143. Butt, Roosevelt and Taft, vol. 2, 102-4.
144. Charles Taft to William Howard Taft, August 3, 1909, Series 7, Papers of William Howard Taft, microfilm edition, Library of Congress.
145. J.D. Brannan to William Howard Taft, June 29, 1909, ibid.
146. The first source of independent presidential advising on tariff policy came into existence after the Payne-Aldrich Act. The law contained an authorization for the president "to employ such persons as may be required" to advice on the implementation of tariff policy. Under this provision, Taft established the tariff board and delegated to the treasury secretary the appointment of its several members (Wolman, Most Favored Nation, 157-58).
147. Burton, Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:60.
148. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 68.
149. Qtd. in Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 70. On the role of veto threats in presidential bargaining with Congress, see Charles M. Cameron, Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
150. Qtd. in Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 70. On the role of veto threats in presidential bargaining with Congress, see Charles M. Cameron, Veto Bargaining: Presidents and the Politics of Negative Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
151. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 66.
152. Burton, Collected Works of William Howard Taft, 3:130.
153. Ibid., 3:5.
154. Ibid., 3:7.
155. Coletta, Presidency of William Howard Taft, 53.
156. See John Tebbel and Sarah Miles Watts, ThePress and the Presidents: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 349-63.
157. Butt, Taft and Roosevelt, 1:185.
158. Coletta, The Presidency of William Howard Taft, 74.
159. From the perspective of the Progressive Era presidents'views toward anti-trust, Martin J. Sklar comes to a similar view regarding Taft's fit within a Progressive political structure. See Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 333-82.
160. See Skowronek, The. Politics Presidents Make, 33-38.