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Volumn 71, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 351-380

Patents legislation and German FDI in the British chemical industry before 1914

(1)  Hagen, Antje a  

a NONE

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EID: 0042859976     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3116077     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (7)

References (110)
  • 1
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    • note
    • As a consequence of this proliferation of products and processes and their mutual interdependence, this paper adopts a wide definition of the chemical industry, which encompasses all branches mentioned above.
  • 3
    • 0042661997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The development of artificial dyestuffs can act as a case in point here. Whereas it was the Briton W. H. Perkin who developed the first artificial dye, the bulk of the subsequent new dyes originated from Germany.
  • 4
    • 51249188103 scopus 로고
    • Germany's overtaking of England, 1806-1914, part II
    • Charles P. Kindleberger, "Germany's Overtaking of England, 1806-1914, Part II," in Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 111 (1975): 480-481; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), 475.
    • (1975) Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv , vol.111 , pp. 480-481
    • Kindleberger, C.P.1
  • 6
    • 0042661968 scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1958) The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America , pp. 55
    • Haber, L.F.1
  • 7
    • 0042160934 scopus 로고
    • Chemicals
    • ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, London
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1968) The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise , pp. 282
    • Richardson, H.W.1
  • 8
    • 0003627126 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1969) The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present , pp. 272
    • Landes, D.S.1
  • 9
    • 0043162757 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1970) Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 , vol.1 , pp. 37-49
    • Reader, W.J.1
  • 10
    • 84980210169 scopus 로고
    • Attitudes to new techniques: British businessmen 1800-1950
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1986) Economic History Review , vol.39 , pp. 594
    • Coleman, D.1    Macleod, C.2
  • 11
    • 0042661906 scopus 로고
    • Stuttgart
    • This applies both to the production of heavy chemicals, where new production methods (like the Solvay process instead of the Leblanc process in soda production) were only reluctantly adopted, and to the development of new products, which was largely left to German companies. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America (Oxford, 1958), 55, 59; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals," in The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition 1875-1914: Studies in Industrial Enterprise, ed. Derek H. Aldcroft, (London, 1968), 282; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 272; William Joseph Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries - A History, Vol. I: The Forerunners 1870-1926 (New York, 1970), 37-49; D. Coleman and C. MacLeod, "Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen 1800-1950," Economic History Review 39 (1986): 594; Hans Pohl, Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989), 177.
    • (1989) Aufbruch der Weltwirschaft. Geschichte der Weltwirtschaft von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg , pp. 177
    • Pohl, H.1
  • 12
    • 0043162744 scopus 로고
    • Observations and suggestions on the present position of the British chemical industries, with special reference to coal-tar derivatives
    • 29 June
    • Ivan Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions on the Present Position of the British Chemical Industries, with Special Reference to Coal-Tar Derivatives," Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 5 (29 June 1886): 351-352; John Joseph Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (New York, 1981), 47-48; Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries, 263-264; Gottfried Plumpe, Die I. G. Farbenindustrie AG. Wirtschaft, Technik, Politik 1904-1945, Schriften zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 37 (Berlin, 1990), 52.
    • (1886) Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry , vol.5 , pp. 351-352
    • Levinstein, I.1
  • 13
    • 0004202767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Ivan Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions on the Present Position of the British Chemical Industries, with Special Reference to Coal-Tar Derivatives," Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 5 (29 June 1886): 351-352; John Joseph Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (New York, 1981), 47-48; Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries, 263-264; Gottfried Plumpe, Die I. G. Farbenindustrie AG. Wirtschaft, Technik, Politik 1904-1945, Schriften zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 37 (Berlin, 1990), 52.
    • (1981) The Emergence of the German Dye Industry , pp. 47-48
    • Beer, J.J.1
  • 14
    • 0003829426 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ivan Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions on the Present Position of the British Chemical Industries, with Special Reference to Coal-Tar Derivatives," Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 5 (29 June 1886): 351-352; John Joseph Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (New York, 1981), 47-48; Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries, 263-264; Gottfried Plumpe, Die I. G. Farbenindustrie AG. Wirtschaft, Technik, Politik 1904-1945, Schriften zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 37 (Berlin, 1990), 52.
    • Imperial Chemical Industries , pp. 263-264
    • Reader1
  • 15
    • 0042661888 scopus 로고
    • Schriften zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, Berlin
    • Ivan Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions on the Present Position of the British Chemical Industries, with Special Reference to Coal-Tar Derivatives," Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 5 (29 June 1886): 351-352; John Joseph Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (New York, 1981), 47-48; Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries, 263-264; Gottfried Plumpe, Die I. G. Farbenindustrie AG. Wirtschaft, Technik, Politik 1904-1945, Schriften zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 37 (Berlin, 1990), 52.
    • (1990) Die I. G. Farbenindustrie AG. Wirtschaft, Technik, Politik 1904-1945 , vol.37 , pp. 52
    • Plumpe, G.1
  • 17
    • 0043162741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pollard, Britain's Prime, 34; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 432. On the world markets, German chemical companies also encroached upon British suppliers in the fields of heavy, bulk chemicals. They are largely disregarded in the following article, however, as no traces of FDI could be found in these fields.
    • Britain's Prime , pp. 34
    • Pollard1
  • 18
    • 0004203461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pollard, Britain's Prime, 34; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 432. On the world markets, German chemical companies also encroached upon British suppliers in the fields of heavy, bulk chemicals. They are largely disregarded in the following article, however, as no traces of FDI could be found in these fields.
    • Scale and Scope , pp. 432
    • Chandler1
  • 19
    • 0003965377 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Oliver E. Williamson, Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Anti-Trust Implications (New York, 1975). According to the distinction introduced by Williamson between market and hierarchy as the two alternative ways of effecting business transactions, on an international plane market leads to foreign trade. Foreign trade consists of a transfer of goods and services. By contrast, hierarchy on an international level involves the transfer of assets across borders. It can be effected by foreign direct investment. As a consequence of this transfer of assets, the level of integration between the two partners rises. A common governance structure evolves.
    • (1975) Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Anti-trust Implications
    • Williamson, O.E.1
  • 20
    • 0003609110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wokingham
    • In this paper, a multinational enterprise is defined in accordance with the definitions advanced in John H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), 3; Mira Wilkins, "Hosts to Transnational Investments - A Comparative Analysis," in Transnational Investment from the 19th Century to the Present, ed. Hans Pohl (Stuttgart, 1994), 27; and Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (New York, 1996), 4. Following these definitions, a multinational enterprise (MNE) is a company which engages in value adding activities in more than one country. It disposes of assets in a country other than its home country, be it in the form of a sales and marketing subsidiary or a production unit. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the term applied to the transfer of assets that turns a company into an MNE. The assets involved in this process can be tangible or intangible. Usually they are comprised of a combination of capital, machines and equipment, know-how and personnel.
    • (1993) Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy , pp. 3
    • Dunning, J.H.1
  • 21
    • 0010937544 scopus 로고
    • Hosts to transnational investments - A comparative analysis
    • ed. Hans Pohl Stuttgart
    • In this paper, a multinational enterprise is defined in accordance with the definitions advanced in John H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), 3; Mira Wilkins, "Hosts to Transnational Investments - A Comparative Analysis," in Transnational Investment from the 19th Century to the Present, ed. Hans Pohl (Stuttgart, 1994), 27; and Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (New York, 1996), 4. Following these definitions, a multinational enterprise (MNE) is a company which engages in value adding activities in more than one country. It disposes of assets in a country other than its home country, be it in the form of a sales and marketing subsidiary or a production unit. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the term applied to the transfer of assets that turns a company into an MNE. The assets involved in this process can be tangible or intangible. Usually they are comprised of a combination of capital, machines and equipment, know-how and personnel.
    • (1994) Transnational Investment from the 19th Century to the Present , pp. 27
    • Wilkins, M.1
  • 22
    • 0003992802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York
    • In this paper, a multinational enterprise is defined in accordance with the definitions advanced in John H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), 3; Mira Wilkins, "Hosts to Transnational Investments - A Comparative Analysis," in Transnational Investment from the 19th Century to the Present, ed. Hans Pohl (Stuttgart, 1994), 27; and Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (New York, 1996), 4. Following these definitions, a multinational enterprise (MNE) is a company which engages in value adding activities in more than one country. It disposes of assets in a country other than its home country, be it in the form of a sales and marketing subsidiary or a production unit. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the term applied to the transfer of assets that turns a company into an MNE. The assets involved in this process can be tangible or intangible. Usually they are comprised of a combination of capital, machines and equipment, know-how and personnel.
    • (1996) The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction , pp. 4
    • Jones, G.1
  • 23
    • 0003609110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • chap. 4
    • For recent surveys of existing theories see Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy, chap. 4, or Siegfried G. Schoppe, Kompendium der Internationalen Betriebswirtschaftslehre (München, 1994), chap. 2.
    • Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy
    • Dunning1
  • 25
    • 0041659886 scopus 로고
    • German multinational enterprise before 1914: Some case studies
    • Peter Hertner and Geoffrey Jones, eds. Aldershot
    • Peter Hertner, "German Multinational Enterprise before 1914: Some Case Studies," in Peter Hertner and Geoffrey Jones, eds. Multinationals: Theory and History (Aldershot, 1986), 123-124.
    • (1986) Multinationals: Theory and History , pp. 123-124
    • Hertner, P.1
  • 27
    • 4243760706 scopus 로고
    • Foreign investment of the German chemical industry, 1870-1930
    • Harm Schröter, "Foreign Investment of the German Chemical Industry, 1870-1930," in German Yearbook on Business History, 1993, 91 and 100 respectively.
    • (1993) German Yearbook on Business History , pp. 91
    • Schröter, H.1
  • 28
    • 0042160826 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ivan Levinstein
    • Ivan Levinstein.
  • 30
    • 0042661847 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The tables displayed in the article contain those companies which are explicitly mentioned in the text. The remaining firms are smaller companies, which are not explicitly mentioned, but whose analysis underlined the arguments put forward here.
  • 32
    • 0042661839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1890 McKinley Tariff, 1897 Dingley Tariff
    • 1890 McKinley Tariff, 1897 Dingley Tariff.
  • 33
    • 84972218875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The very first reform he and his followers effected was the Patents, Designs, and Trade Marks Act of 1883, which bestowed upon the Board of Trade the right to revoke a patent. The law was not made use of, however. Levinstein consequently resumed lobbying for its reform. See, for instance, Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions," 351-359. For Levinstein's role in bringing about the patent law, cf. also P. Reed, "The British Chemical Industry and the Indigo Trade," in British Journal of the History of Science 25 (1992): 113-125.
    • Observations and Suggestions , pp. 351-359
    • Levinstein1
  • 34
    • 84972218875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The British chemical industry and the indigo trade
    • The very first reform he and his followers effected was the Patents, Designs, and Trade Marks Act of 1883, which bestowed upon the Board of Trade the right to revoke a patent. The law was not made use of, however. Levinstein consequently resumed lobbying for its reform. See, for instance, Levinstein, "Observations and Suggestions," 351-359. For Levinstein's role in bringing about the patent law, cf. also P. Reed, "The British Chemical Industry and the Indigo Trade," in British Journal of the History of Science 25 (1992): 113-125.
    • (1992) British Journal of the History of Science , vol.25 , pp. 113-125
    • Reed, P.1
  • 35
    • 0041659884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The amounts produced in the United Kingdom were to cover both British consumption and exports made from the British market.
  • 36
    • 0041659883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zimmermann, Patentwesen, 124-128; H. W. Richardson, "Chemicals, " 299-300.
    • Patentwesen , pp. 124-128
    • Zimmermann1
  • 38
    • 0042661824 scopus 로고
    • London
    • The Red Book of Commerce (London, 1913); Geoffrey Jones et. al., Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment in Britain since 1850 (Computer File, Colchester, ESRC Data Archive, 1993).
    • (1913) The Red Book of Commerce
  • 40
    • 0042160810 scopus 로고
    • Amöneburg-Biebrich
    • Company Archive of Hoechst AG (CUK-UG), Annual Reports of Chemische Werke vorm. H. & E. Albert, Amöneburg-Biebrich 1909 to 1933; CUK-UG, library (no pressmark); Heincieh Albert, Mein Leben (no place or date given); 80 Jahre Chemische Werke Albert, 1858-1938 (Wiesbaden, 1938), 1-18 as well as Ernst Schwenk, 125 Jahre Albert Chemie in Biebrich am Rhein, Bilder und Fakten zur Firmengeschichte (Wiesbaden, 1983), 28-33, 50-53, 56-65.
    • (1909) Annual Reports of Chemische Werke Vorm. H. & E. Albert
  • 41
    • 0041659866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • no place or date given
    • Company Archive of Hoechst AG (CUK-UG), Annual Reports of Chemische Werke vorm. H. & E. Albert, Amöneburg-Biebrich 1909 to 1933; CUK-UG, library (no pressmark); Heincieh Albert, Mein Leben (no place or date given); 80 Jahre Chemische Werke Albert, 1858-1938 (Wiesbaden, 1938), 1-18 as well as Ernst Schwenk, 125 Jahre Albert Chemie in Biebrich am Rhein, Bilder und Fakten zur Firmengeschichte (Wiesbaden, 1983), 28-33, 50-53, 56-65.
    • Mein Leben
    • Albert, H.1
  • 42
    • 0043162698 scopus 로고
    • Wiesbaden
    • Company Archive of Hoechst AG (CUK-UG), Annual Reports of Chemische Werke vorm. H. & E. Albert, Amöneburg-Biebrich 1909 to 1933; CUK-UG, library (no pressmark); Heincieh Albert, Mein Leben (no place or date given); 80 Jahre Chemische Werke Albert, 1858-1938 (Wiesbaden, 1938), 1-18 as well as Ernst Schwenk, 125 Jahre Albert Chemie in Biebrich am Rhein, Bilder und Fakten zur Firmengeschichte (Wiesbaden, 1983), 28-33, 50-53, 56-65.
    • (1938) 80 Jahre Chemische Werke Albert, 1858-1938 , pp. 1-18
  • 43
    • 0041659858 scopus 로고
    • Wiesbaden
    • Company Archive of Hoechst AG (CUK-UG), Annual Reports of Chemische Werke vorm. H. & E. Albert, Amöneburg-Biebrich 1909 to 1933; CUK-UG, library (no pressmark); Heincieh Albert, Mein Leben (no place or date given); 80 Jahre Chemische Werke Albert, 1858-1938 (Wiesbaden, 1938), 1-18 as well as Ernst Schwenk, 125 Jahre Albert Chemie in Biebrich am Rhein, Bilder und Fakten zur Firmengeschichte (Wiesbaden, 1983), 28-33, 50-53, 56-65.
    • (1983) 125 Jahre Albert Chemie in Biebrich am Rhein, Bilder und Fakten zur Firmengeschichte , pp. 28-33
    • Schwenk, E.1
  • 45
    • 0043162701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • On the organizational level, the British plants were joined together by a holding company, Chemical Works, Late H. & E. Albert, in London. This company was not run separately from its German mother company, however. The German company's annual reports name both German and British directors as managers of the conglomerate. Of the total equity of the company, the British branch accounted for approximately 18 percent (or £15,000) in 1909, the first year for which the annual report of Chemische Werke vorm. H. & E. Albert is preserved. Investments in the U.K. increased in the following years. In the annual report of 1913, Albert's British plants were valued at approximately £27,000.
  • 46
    • 0041659872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In Middlesborough, Southbank, Parkgate, Frodingham, Wednesbury, Trench, Brymbo, and Round Oak.
  • 47
    • 85028492979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • no date
    • The following section is based on no author, "Inoffizielle Firmengeschichte" (no date), 51-55, Business Archive of Th. Goldschmidt AG, Essen, and other documents obtained from the Business Archive of Th. Goldschmidt AG.
    • Inoffizielle Firmengeschichte , pp. 51-55
  • 48
    • 0003650214 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Mass.
    • A motive for FDI singled out by Stephen Hymer and others. See Stephen Hymer, The International Operations of National Firms (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 1-96; Richard Caves, "Industrial Economics of Foreign Investment, the Case of the International Corporation," in Economics 38: 1-27; Charles P. Kindleberger, American Business Abroad. Six Lectures on Direct Investment (New Haven, Conn., 1969).
    • (1976) The International Operations of National Firms , pp. 1-96
    • Hymer, S.1
  • 49
    • 0002180901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Industrial economics of foreign investment, the case of the international corporation
    • A motive for FDI singled out by Stephen Hymer and others. See Stephen Hymer, The International Operations of National Firms (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 1-96; Richard Caves, "Industrial Economics of Foreign Investment, the Case of the International Corporation," in Economics 38: 1-27; Charles P. Kindleberger, American Business Abroad. Six Lectures on Direct Investment (New Haven, Conn., 1969).
    • Economics , vol.38 , pp. 1-27
    • Caves, R.1
  • 50
    • 0003825017 scopus 로고
    • New Haven, Conn.
    • A motive for FDI singled out by Stephen Hymer and others. See Stephen Hymer, The International Operations of National Firms (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 1-96; Richard Caves, "Industrial Economics of Foreign Investment, the Case of the International Corporation," in Economics 38: 1-27; Charles P. Kindleberger, American Business Abroad. Six Lectures on Direct Investment (New Haven, Conn., 1969).
    • (1969) American Business Abroad. Six Lectures on Direct Investment
    • Kindleberger, C.P.1
  • 51
    • 0042661808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This threat was substantial, as there would not have been enough scrap metal to keep all de-tinning plants profitable. Goldschmidt's process was slightly superior technically, which is why competitor firms feared that they would go out of business should Goldschmidt set up its own de-tinning plant in the U.K.
  • 52
    • 0042160798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Public Record Office-London, (PRO) BT 31/ 17000/ 76972. The capital invested in Batchelor & Co. Ltd. was £27,500.
  • 53
    • 0041659836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The agreement consequently also bore aspects of resource orientation. As the pursuit of monopoly was clearly the predominant motive of Th. Goldschmidt's investments, however, the company is treated under this heading.
  • 54
    • 0042661776 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Investment in the London Electron Works amounted to £26,000.
  • 55
    • 0042661775 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A final direct investment in this context prior to World War I, was the foundation of Glasgow Metal Ltd. in 1913. This company was to procure supplies of scrap metal in Scotland.
  • 56
    • 0043162669 scopus 로고
    • Essen-Ruhr
    • The holding company had a nominal capital of £5,000. Th. Goldschmidt, ed., A Short Account of the Development of Th. Goldschmidt, Chemical and Tin Smelting Works, Essen-Ruhr, 1847-1903, no pages given. Via its German subsidiary, Allgemeine Thermit Gesellschaft, Essen, Th. Goldschmidt furthermore disposed of a British subsidiary for the working of a process of metal welding as employed in the construction of tramway tracks, This company, Thermit Ltd., founded in 1904, had a nominal capital of £50,000.
    • (1847) A Short Account of the Development of Th. Goldschmidt, Chemical and Tin Smelting Works
    • Goldschmidt, Th.1
  • 57
  • 58
    • 0004203461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E. Koch, Ein Unternehmen im Wandel der Zeiten - Messer Griesheim (Frankfurt, 1993), 39; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 450-451; Jones, Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment; indirectly also: PRO, BT 31/ 11361/ 87058.
    • Scale and Scope , pp. 450-451
    • Chandler1
  • 59
    • 0043162666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • indirectly also: PRO, BT 31/ 11361/ 87058
    • E. Koch, Ein Unternehmen im Wandel der Zeiten - Messer Griesheim (Frankfurt, 1993), 39; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 450-451; Jones, Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment; indirectly also: PRO, BT 31/ 11361/ 87058.
    • Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment
    • Jones1
  • 61
    • 0041659837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Approximately £40,000
    • Approximately £40,000.
  • 62
    • 0042160799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • German customers received chemical intermediates from suppliers who were members of the cartel.
  • 63
    • 0042661782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, BT 31/ 1916/ 7855
    • PRO, BT 31/ 1916/ 7855.
  • 64
    • 0042661788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • AG für Kohlendestillation was to share profits with Bell Brothers for a twelve-year period, after which AG für Kohlendestillation was again to obtain the whole of the profits for another six years. After this period, a new agreement was to be drawn up to take into account changed circumstances. This was prevented, however, by the beginning of the First World War.
  • 67
    • 0004037511 scopus 로고
    • Essen
    • F. M. Ress, Geschichte der Kokereitechnik. Im Auftrage des Steinkohlenbergbauvereins (Essen, 1957), 240-241. In the company's balance sheet for March 1914, AG für Kohlendestillation's foreign assets were valued at £220,000. These were made up of five British investments and one Russian coking plant. No individual values were given, but it is to be assumed that the British investments amounted to approximately £180,000. As both its British and Russian interests were sequestrated during World War I, AG für Kohlendestillation lost its main assets. Furthermore, British companies had taken over AG für Kohlendestillation's British plants and were working its technology on their own account. AG's management saw no prospect of resuming business in the U.K. (or Russia, for that matter) after the War. In Germany, the company consequently went into liquidation in 1919/20.
    • (1957) Geschichte der Kokereitechnik. Im Auftrage des Steinkohlenbergbauvereins , pp. 240-241
    • Ress, F.M.1
  • 68
    • 0043162657 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Dresden), no year or pages given, and PRO, BT 8 / 135
    • This description differs from Schröter, "Foreign Investment of the German Chemical Industry," 98, who states that Lingner's foreign production only started in the interwar period. The view held here has been made possible by the detection of a new source on Lingner, namely Historische biographische Blätter, Sachsen, 5th ed., (Dresden), no year or pages given, and PRO, BT 8 / 135.
    • Historische Biographische Blätter, Sachsen, 5th Ed.
    • Lingner1
  • 70
    • 0041659824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The name Elberfeld Farbenfabriken Co. was deemed overly complicated by Bayer's British customers. They argued that it was hardly pronounceable. Furthermore, "Bayer" should be in the company name, as this would specify immediately whose products were being sold. To reduce the language barrier and allow for immediate recognition of the brand name the company name was subsequently simplified into The Bayer Co. The original capital of The Baver Co. was £5,000, whereas Meister, Lucius & Brüning Ltd. started out with £20,000.
  • 73
    • 0042160765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18428/ 97893. The nominal capital of this company amounted to £5,000
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18428/ 97893. The nominal capital of this company amounted to £5,000.
  • 74
    • 0042160734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seelze
    • CA Merck, H1, 9 (b); Riedel-de-Haen, ed., 150 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen. Die Geschichte eines deutschen Unternehmens (Seelze, 1964), 67; Riedel-de-Haen, ed., Wir schaffen Verbindungen. 175 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen (Seelze, 1989), 21, 96-97: J. D. Riedel, a pharmaceutical company, founded a sales subsidiary, J. D. Riedel & Co., in London.
    • (1964) 150 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen. Die Geschichte Eines Deutschen Unternehmens , pp. 67
  • 75
    • 0042661767 scopus 로고
    • Seelze
    • CA Merck, H1, 9 (b); Riedel-de-Haen, ed., 150 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen. Die Geschichte eines deutschen Unternehmens (Seelze, 1964), 67; Riedel-de-Haen, ed., Wir schaffen Verbindungen. 175 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen (Seelze, 1989), 21, 96-97: J. D. Riedel, a pharmaceutical company, founded a sales subsidiary, J. D. Riedel & Co., in London.
    • (1989) Wir Schaffen Verbindungen. 175 Jahre Riedel-de-haen , pp. 21
  • 76
    • 0042661757 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hamburg
    • PRO, BT 8/ 135; Beiersdorf AG, ed., 100 Jahre Beiersdorf, 1882-1982 (Hamburg, 1982), 120, letter by Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, dated 3 Nov. 1994. Beiersdorf AG set up P. Beiersdorf & Co. in London in 1906 as a sales office cum storage facility. It marketed both pharmaceutical and cosmetical products as well as dressing material. In the following years, the company's turnover increased steadily.
    • (1982) 100 Jahre Beiersdorf, 1882-1982 , pp. 120
    • Beiersdorf, A.G.1
  • 77
    • 0042160742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This quick reaction can be explained in part by experiences the companies had had in other countries. Several German companies had already established branch production units in France several years earlier, after the French government had introduced a regulation that patents had to be worked in the country. Being forced by national legislation to establish a production unit was thus not a new experience for German companies.
  • 78
    • 0041659810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Company Archive of Bayer AG (Bayer Archiv), 1/6.6.6 Länderübersicht Verkauf Farben, 70.
  • 79
    • 0042661761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • CUK-UG Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Filiale England 1900-1914, 2/000 18, 9, 90; CUK-UG, Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Filiale England 1909-1924, 2/000 19.
  • 80
    • 0043162656 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • To be precise, the patents were for thioindigo, a reddish brown colorant as opposed to general indigo, which is blue. Cooperation between Kalle and Meister, Lucius & Brüning Ltd. worked as follows: Kalle sent the raw materials for production from Germany. Meister, Lucius & Brüning Ltd. produced Kalle indigo in license and marketed it in the U.K.
  • 81
    • 0043162648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The pharmaceutical in question was "Nastin" an early attempt at a cure against leprosy.
  • 83
    • 0042160755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BASF-Farbe für Englands textilbranche
    • 4.9.1991, no pages given
    • No author, "BASF-Farbe für Englands Textilbranche," in BASF Information, Nr. 15, 4.9.1991, no pages given.
    • BASF Information , Issue.15
  • 84
    • 4243879703 scopus 로고
    • Berlin
    • H. Holländer, Geschichte der Schering AG (Berlin, 1955), 37; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 482; Jones, Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment.
    • (1955) Geschichte der Schering AG , pp. 37
    • Holländer, H.1
  • 85
    • 0004203461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. Holländer, Geschichte der Schering AG (Berlin, 1955), 37; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 482; Jones, Impact of Foreign Multinational Investment.
    • Scale and Scope , pp. 482
    • Chandler1
  • 88
    • 0043162650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Of the total nominal capital of £125,000, VGF held approximately 60 percent. Unlike most of the other German companies, which chose the form of a private limited company, VGF created a public limited company.
  • 89
    • 0004203461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18500/ 98979
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18500/ 98979; Chandler, Scale and Scope, 443, notes that branch production was possible for VGF, because its production process did not allow for large economies of scale anyway. At first, VGF endeavored to promote its process, which was based on the use of cupprannium as a raw material. It transpired, however, that a rival process, which was based on viscose rather than cuprannium was superior to VGF's own method. In the event, VGF tried to get hold of the patents for the viscose based process which in the U.K. was practiced by the market leader Courtaulds, in Germany by J. P. Bemberg. So while the VGF investment needs to be seen in the light of the patent law, it also had other motives. At first it resulted from the desire for monopolistic control of the artificial fibers market. When it became obvious that the company's own process was inferior to the rival one, a switch to this process occurred, and the British investment was upheld to secure VGF's share of the British market. By World War I, VGF and its British subsidiary had become the second biggest producer of artificial fiber after Britain's Courtaulds Ltd.
    • Scale and Scope , pp. 443
    • Chandler1
  • 90
    • 0041659781 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18367/ 96998; the capital invested in Glidine Ltd. amounted to £65,000. PRO, BT 31/ 19583/ 110903. A similar producer of nutritious chemical mixtures was Roborat Co. Ltd., set up in London by the Weiss Family from Karlsruhe. Roborat Co. manufactured food and other chemicals in London from 1910.
  • 91
    • 0043162643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 19208/107317. The company (nominal capital £6,000) produced various greases, oils and pastes to be used in the dying and manufacture of textiles. The products were patented and traded under the company's own brand names, like "Duron Wool Cream," "Duron Paste," or "Amid."
  • 93
    • 0042160741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Born in Belgium, Baekeland had subsequently settled in the United States, where he invented his products. He took out patents internationally for these inventions.
  • 94
    • 0042661748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, BT 31/ 20305/ 118614. Nominal capital: £2,500
    • PRO, BT 31/ 20305/ 118614. Nominal capital: £2,500.
  • 95
    • 0041659785 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 21072/125660. Nominal capital: £ 5,000; State Archive of Saxony at Leipzig (SächsStA Leipzig): Registrar of Companies, HR B 455 (Fritz Schulz Junior AG).
  • 96
    • 0043162638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Company Archive E. Merck (CA Merck), f3, 15 (a), Annual Report for 1911.
  • 97
    • 0041659786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • CA Merck, H 1, 9 (a), memorandum by Frederick Boehm to E. Merck, Darmstadt, sent at Easter 1909; CA Merck, H 1, 9 (b).
  • 98
    • 0043162637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • CA Merck, H 1, 9 (a), notes taken during a meeting between Darmstadt directors and Boehm in London from 20 to 22 Sept. 1909; CA Merck, H 1, 9 (b), rentability calculation of possible London factory together with letter sent by Darmstadt director to Frederick Boehm dated 22 Dec. 1911.
  • 99
    • 0042661751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • They feared that the benefit of reduced transportation costs which would result from bulk transportation would be offset by the higher wages that had to be paid to British workers.
  • 100
    • 0042661737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CA Merck, H 1, 9 (a), letter by Boehm dated 14 Dec. 1911
    • CA Merck, H 1, 9 (a), letter by Boehm dated 14 Dec. 1911.
  • 101
    • 0041659777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CA Merck, H1, 10 (b)
    • CA Merck, H1, 10 (b).
  • 102
    • 0042661757 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • letter by Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, dated 3 Nov. 1994
    • PRO, BT 8/ 135; Beiersdorf AG, 100 Jahre Beiersdorf, 1882-1982, 120, letter by Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, dated 3 Nov. 1994.
    • 100 Jahre Beiersdorf, 1882-1982 , pp. 120
    • Beiersdorf, A.G.1
  • 103
    • 0042160734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CA Merck, H1, 9 (b); Riedel-de-Haen, ed., 150 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen, 67; Riedel-de-Haen, ed., Wir schaffen Verbindungen, 21, 96-97. The sales outlet was turned into a subsidiary company of its own right in 1912. It was of limited size, however. The premises consisted of a sales room and a small office, for which an annual rent of £45 had to be paid.
    • 150 Jahre Riedel-de-haen , pp. 67
    • Riedel-De-Haen1
  • 104
    • 0042160705 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CA Merck, H1, 9 (b); Riedel-de-Haen, ed., 150 Jahre Riedel-de-Haen, 67; Riedel-de-Haen, ed., Wir schaffen Verbindungen, 21, 96-97. The sales outlet was turned into a subsidiary company of its own right in 1912. It was of limited size, however. The premises consisted of a sales room and a small office, for which an annual rent of £45 had to be paid.
    • Wir Schaffen Verbindungen , vol.21 , pp. 96-97
    • Riedel-De-Haen1
  • 105
    • 0042160730 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 18579/ 99953. Gebr. Heyl founded their London sales subsidiary in 1908. The initial nominal capital of £1,500 soon proved too small, however, which is why £5,000 in debentures were issued in 1910. Apart from pharmaceuticals, Heyl Brothers also distributed certain dyestuffs and chemical intermediates.
  • 106
    • 0042661735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 19554/110612. Radium Heil GmbH had developed ways in which radioactivity in water was used for medical purposes. The company internationally held patents for its cures. In Britain they were marketed by Radium Ltd.
  • 107
    • 0042160731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 21464/ 129037. In 1913 the existing sales outlet of Knoll & Co. in London was transformed into a private limited company with a nominal capital of £3,000.
  • 108
    • 0043162635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • PRO, BT 31/ 20945/ 124472; CUK-UG, Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron, 2/20 9. Griesheim Elektron Ltd. was founded in London with a nominal capital of £10,000.
  • 109
    • 0042661741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, BT 31/ 20945/ 124472; CUK-UG, Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron, 2/20 10; Koch. Messer Griesheim, 59, 69; A.E. Schreier/M. Wex, Chronik der Hoechst AG 1863-1988 (Frankfurt, 1990), 104.
    • Messer Griesheim , pp. 59
    • Koch1
  • 110
    • 0042661736 scopus 로고
    • Frankfurt
    • PRO, BT 31/ 20945/ 124472; CUK-UG, Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron, 2/20 10; Koch. Messer Griesheim, 59, 69; A.E. Schreier/M. Wex, Chronik der Hoechst AG 1863-1988 (Frankfurt, 1990), 104.
    • (1990) Chronik der Hoechst AG 1863-1988 , pp. 104
    • Schreier, A.E.1    Wex, M.2


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