Economics of science: survey and suggestions

Journal of Economic Methodology

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 95-124

  Sent, Esther Mirjam ^a,b  

^a ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

Author keywords

Economics of science; Marketplace of ideas; Reflexivity; Science and technology; Science policy; Sociology of science

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042826366     PISSN: 1350178X     EISSN: 14699427     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13501789900000005     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Adams, John D., 1990. Fundamental stocks of knowledge and productivity growth. Journal of Political Economy, 98: 673–702.
2. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1989. Science for All Americans: A Project 2016 Report on Literacy Goals in Science, Mathematics, and Technology, Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
3. Archibugi, Daniele, and Pianta, Mario. 1992. The Technological Specialization of Advanced Countries: A Report to the EEC on International Science and Technology Activities, Norwell, MA and Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
4. Arrow, Kenneth J., 1962. “ Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention ”. In The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity, Edited by: Richard, R. Nelson. 609–626. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
5. Arrow, Kenneth J., 1974. The Limits of Organization, New York: Norton.
6. Arrow, Kenneth J., 1984. The Economics of Information, vol. 4 of the Collected Papers, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7. Arrow, Kennth J., 1987. “ Reflections on the essays ”. In Arrow and the Ascent of Modern Economic Theory, Edited by: George, R. Feiwel. 685–689. New York: New York University Press.
8. Arrow, Kenneth J., and Capron, W. M., 1959. Dynamic shortages and price rises: the engineer-scientist case. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 73: 292–308.
9. Ashmore, Malcolm. 1989. The Reflexive Thesis, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
10. Babe, Robert, ed. 1994. Information and Communication in Economics, Boston: Kluwer Academic.
11. Bartley, William W., 1990. Unfathomed Knowledge, Unmeasured Wealth, La Salle, IL: Open Court.
12. Barton, Henry. 1963. The publication charge plans in physics journals. Physics Today, 16: 45–57.
13. Becker, Gary S., 1975. Human Capital, New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
14. Becker, Gary S., and Murphy, Kevin M., 1992. The division of labor, coordination costs, and knowledge. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107: 1137–1160.
15. Ben-David, Joseph. 1960. Scientific productivity and academic organization in nineteenth century medicine. American Sociological Review, 25: 82843
16. Ben-David, Joseph. 1971. The Scientist's Role in Society, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
17. Ben-David, Joseph. 1991. Scientific Growth, Berkeley: University of California Press.
18. Ben-David, Joseph, and Zloczower, A., 1962. Universities and academic systems in modern societies. European Journal of Sociology, 3: 45–84.
19. Bernal, J. D., 1939. The Social Function of Science, London: Routledge.
20. Biddle, Jeff, and Roberts, Karen. 1994. Private sector scientists and engineers and the transition to management. Journal of Human Resources, 29: 82–107.
21. Bijker, Wiebe, Hughes, Thomas, and Pinch, Trevor, eds. 1987. The Social Construction of Technological Systems, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
22. Blank, David M., and Stigler, George J., 1957. The Demand and Supply of Scientific Personnel, New York: NBER.
23. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1975. The specificity of the scientific field. Social Science Information, 14: 19–47.
24. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25. Boyle, James. 1996. Shamans, Software, and Spleens: Law and the Construction of the Information Society, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
26. Brannigan, Augustine. 1981. The Social Basis of Scientific Discoveries, New York: Cambridge University Press.
27. Brooks, Harvey. 1993. “ Research universities and the social contract for science ”. In Empowering Technology, Edited by: Branscomb, Lewis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
28. Bush, Vannevar. 1980. Science — the Endless Frontier, Washington, DC: USGPO.
29. Callon, Michel. 1994. Is science a public good?. Science, Technology and Human Values, 19: 393–424.
30. Campbell, Alan K., and Dix, Linda S., eds. 1990. Recruitment, Retention, and Utilization of Federal Scientists and Engineers: A Report to the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
31. Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Development. 1994. Science, Technology and Congress, New York: Carnegie Commission.
32. Chandler, Alfred. 1977. The Visible Hand, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
33. Chubin, Daryl E., and Hackett, E., 1990. Peerless Science, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
34. Coase, Ronald H., 1960. The problem of social cost. Journal of Law and Economics, 3: 1–44.
35. Coats, A. W., 1993. The Sociology and Professionalization of Economics, London: Routledge.
36. Cohen, John. 1995. The culture of credit. Science, 268: 1706–1718.
37. Colander, David. 1989. Research on the economics profession. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 3: 137–148.
38. Colander, David, and Coats, A. W., eds. 1989. The Spread of Economic Ideas, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
39. Cole, Jonathan R., and Cole, Stephen. 1973. Social Stratification in Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
40. Cole, Stephen. 1978. Scientific reward systems: a comparative analysis. Research in Sociology of Knowledge, Sciences and Art, 1: 167–190.
41. Cole, Stephen, Cole, Jonathan R., and Simon, Gary A., 1981. Chance and consensus in peer review. Science, 214: 881–886.
42. Collins, Harry M., 1985. Changing Order, London: Sage.
43. Collins, Harry M., 1990. Artificial Experts: Social Knowledge and Intelligent Machines, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
44. Cozzens, S., Healey, P., Rip, A., and Ziman, J., eds. 1990. The Research System in Transition, Dordrecht: Kluwer.
45. Dasgupta, Partha, and David, Paul A., 1987. “ Information disclosure and the economics of science and technology ”. In Arrow and the Ascent of Modern Economic Theory, Edited by: Feiwel, George R., 519–542. New York: New York University Press.
46. Dasgupta, Partha, and David, Paul A., 1994. Toward a new economics of science. Research Policy, 23: 487–521.
47. David, Paul A., 1993a. “ Intellectual property institutions and the panda's thumb: patents, copyrights, and trade secrets in economic theory and history ”. In Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology, Edited by: Wallerstein, M. B., Mogee, M. E., and Schoen, R. A., Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
48. David, Paul A., 1993b. “ Knowledge, property, and the system dynamics of technological change ”. In Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1992, Edited by: Summers, L., and Shah, S., Washington, DC: World Bank Press.
49. Diamond, Arthur M., 1988. Science as a rational enterprise. Theory and Decision, 24: 147–167.
50. Diamond, Arthur M., The economics of science. discussion paper dated 13 February 1994 for NSF Conference on the topic. January1995, Washington. Appendix of comments by various experts dated 14 December 1994
51. Diamond, Arthur M., 1996. The economics of science. Knowledge and Policy, 9: 6–49.
52. Dosi, Giovanni. 1984. Technological Change and Industrial Transformation, London: Macmillan.
53. Dupré, John. 1993. The Disorder of Things, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
54. Etzkowitz, Henry. 1983. Entrepreneurial scientists. Minerva, 21: 198–233.
55. Etzkowitz, Henry. 1993. Enterprises from science. Minerva, 31: 326–360.
56. Etzkowitz, Henry, and Webster, Andrew. 1995. “ Science as intellectual property ”. In Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, Edited by: Jasanoff, Sheila, Markle, Gerald, Petersen, James, and Pinch, Trevor. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
57. Ezrahi, Y., 1990. The Descent of Icarus, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
58. Ferber, Marianne E., and Nelson, Julie A., eds. 1993. Beyond Economic Man, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
59. Feyerabend, Paul. 1978. Science in a Free Society, London: New Left Books.
60. Feyerabend, Paul. 1987. Farewell to Reason, London: Verso.
61. Folbre, Nancy. 1993. How does she know? Feminist theories of gender bias in economics. History of Political Economy, 25: 167–184.
62. Forman, Paul. 1997. “ Recent science: late-modern and post-modern ”. In The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology, Edited by: Söderqvist, Thomas. 179–213. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
63. Forsythe, Diana E., 1993. Engineering knowledge: the construction of knowledge in artificial intelligence. Social Studies of Science, 23: 445–477.
64. Foundation Center. 1991. Grants for Social and Political Science Programs, New York: Foundation Centre.
65. Fox, Mary Frank, and Firebaugh, Glenn. 1992. Confidence in science: the gender gap. Social Science Quarterly, 73: 101–113.
66. Freeman, Chris. 1994. The economics of technical change. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 18: 463–514.
67. Friedman, Milton. 1981. An open letter on grants. Newsweek, 99 18 May
68. Fuller, Steve. 1988. Social Epistemology, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
69. Fuller, Steve. 1991. Studying the proprietary grounds of knowledge. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6: 105–128.
70. Fuller, Steve. 1992. “ Knowledge as product and property ”. In The Culture and Power of Knowledge, Edited by: Stehr, Nico, and Richard, V. Ericson. 107–126. Berlin and New York: W. de Gruyter.
71. Galison, Peter, and Hevly, Bruce H., eds. 1992. Big Science, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
72. Goldberg, Steven. 1994. Culture Clash: Law and Science in America, New York: New York University Press.
73. Goldman, Alvin, and Shaked, Moshe. 1991. An economic model of scientific activity and truth acquisition. Philosophical Studies, 63: 31–55.
74. Goldman, Alvin, and Shaked, Moshe. 1993. Commentary on the scientific status of econometrics. Social Epistemology, 7: 249–253.
75. Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable. 1992. Fateful Choices: The Future of the US Academic Research Enterprise, Washington: National Academy Press.
76. Griliches, Zvi. 1988. Technology, Education, and Productivity: Early Papers with Notes to Subsequent Literature, New York: Basil Blackwell.
77. Gross, Paul R., and Levitt, Norman. 1994. Higher Superstition, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
78. Guston, David, and Keniston, Kenneth, eds. 1994. The Fragile Contract, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
79. Hagstrom, Warren O., 1965. The Scientific Community, New York: Basic Books.
80. Hagstrom, Warren O., 1970. “ Factors related to the use of different modes of publishing research in four scientific fields ”. In Communication among Scientists and Engineers, Edited by: Nelson, C. E., and Pollock, D. K., Lexington, MA: Heath Lexington Books.
81. Hague, Douglas, ed. 1991. The Management of Science: Proceedings of Section F (Economics) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, New York: St Martin's Press.
82. Hands, D. Wade. 1994. Blurred boundaries. Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 25: 751–771.
83. Hands, D. Wade. 1996. Economics and Laudan's normative naturalism: bad news from instrumental rationality's front line. Social Epistemology, 10: 137–152.
84. Hands, D. Wade. 1997. Caveat emptor: economics and contemporary philosophy of science. Philosophy of Science 64, Proceedings,: S107–S116.
85. Hargens, Lowell L., 1988. Scholarly consensus and journal rejection rates. American Sociological Review, 53: 139–151.
86. Hargens, Lowell L., 1990a. Neglected considerations in the analysis of agreement among journal referees. Scientometrics, 19: 91–106.
87. Hargens, Lowell L., 1990b. Variation in journal peer review systems: possible causes and consequences. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263: 1358–1352.
88. Hargens, Lowell L., and Hagstrom, Warren O., 1967. Sponsored and contest mobility of American academic scientists. Sociology of Education, 40: 22–38.
89. Hayek, Friedrich A., 1945. The use of knowledge in society. American Economic Review, 35: 519–530.
90. Hayek, Friedrich A., 1978. “ Competition as a discovery procedure ”. In Hayek's New Studies in Philosophy, Politics, Economics, and the History of Ideas, 179–190. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
91. Hilgartner, Stephen. 1995. “ The human genome project ”. In Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, Edited by: Jasanoff, Sheila, Markle, Gerald, Petersen, James, and Pinch, Trevor. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
92. Hirshleifer, Jack, and Riley, J., 1992. The Analytics of Uncertainty and Information, New York: Cambridge University Press.
93. Huff, Toby. 1993. The Rise of Early Modern Science, New York: Cambridge University Press.
94. Hughes, Thomas. 1994. “ Beyond the economics of technology ”. In Economics of Technology, Edited by: Granstrand, O., Amsterdam: North-Holland.
95. Hull, David L., 1978. Altruism in science: a sociobiological model of cooperative behavior among scientists. Animal Behavior, 26: 685–697.
96. Hull, David L., 1988. Science as a Process, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
97. Hull, David L., 1997. What's wrong with invisible hand explanations?. Philosophy of Science 64, Proceedings,: S117–S126.
98. Jasanoff, Sheila, Markle, Gerald, Petersen, James, and Pinch, Trevor, eds. 1995. Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
99. Jouvenel, Bertrand de. 1961. “ The republic of science ”. In The Logic of Personal Knowledge, essays presented to M. Polanyi on his seventieth birthday, 131–141. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
100. Kadish, A., and Tribe, Keith. 1993. The Market for Political Economy, London: Routledge.
101. Kevles, Daniel. 1978. The Physicists, New York: Knopf.
102. Kitcher, Philip. 1990. The division of cognitive labor. Journal of Philosophy, 87: 5–22.
103. Kitcher, Philip. 1993. The Advancement of Science, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
104. Knorr-Cetina, Karin. 1982. Scientific communities or transepistemic arenas of research?. Social Studies of Science, 12: 101–130.
105. Knorr-Cetina, Karin. 1991. Epistemic cultures: forms of reason in science. History of Political Economy, 23: 105–122.
106. Kohler, Robert. 1991. Partners in Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
107. LaFollette, Marcel. 1992. Stealing into Print, Berkeley: University of California Press.
108. Langley, Pat, Simon, Herbert A., Bradshaw, Gary L., and Zytkow, Jan M., 1987. Scientific Discovery: Computational Explorations of the Creative Processes, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
109. Latour, Bruno, and Woolgar, Steve. 1986. Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
110. Lavoie, Don. 1985. National Economic Planning: What's Left?, Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
111. Levin, Sharon G., and Stephan, Paula E., 1991. Research productivity over the life cycle: evidence for academic scientists. American Economic Review, 81: 114–132.
112. Levy, David M., 1985. The impossibility of a complete methodological individualist: reduction when knowledge is imperfect. Economics and Philosophy, 1: 101–108.
113. Levy, David M., 1988. The market for fame and fortune. History of Political Economy, 20: 615–625.
114. Lindley, James T., Fish, Mary, and Jackson, John. 1992. Gender differences in salaries: an application to academe. Southern Economic Journal, 59: 241–259.
115. Lipman, Barton. 1995. Information processing and bounded rationality: a survey. Canadian Journal of Economics, 28: 42–67.
116. McClellan, Chris. 1996. The economic consequences of Bruno Latour. Social Epistemology, 10: 193–208.
117. McDonough, Carol C., 1997. Manuscript submission patterns among economics journals. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 36: 433–436.
118. McGucken, William. 1984. Scientists, Society and the State, Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
119. Mach, Ernst. 1960. “ The economy of science ”. In The Science of Mechanics, 6th American, 577–595. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
120. Mach, Ernst. 1898. “ The economical nature of inquiry in physics ”. In Popular Scientific Lectures of Mach, 3rd rev, 188–213. Chicago: Open Court. trans. T.J. McCormack
121. Machlup, Fritz. 1962. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
122. Machlup, Fritz, and Leeson, K., 1980. Information through the Printed Word, New York: Praeger.
123. MacKenzie, Donald. 1992. Inventing Accuracy, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
124. Mäki, Uskali. 1992. “ Social conditioning of economics ”. In Post-Popperian Methodology of Economics, Edited by: de Marchi, Neil B., Boston: Kluwer.
125. Mansfield, Edward. 1968. The Economics of Technological Change, New York: W.W. Norton.
126. Mansfield, Edward (1991) ‘Social rate of return from academic research’, working paper, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania.
127. Marschak, Jakob. 1971. “ The economics of information ”. In Frontiers of Quantitative Economics, Edited by: Intrilligator, M., Amsterdam: North-Holland.
128. McMullin, Ernan, ed. 1992. The Social Dimensions of Science, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
129. Merton, Robert K., 1973. The Sociology of Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
130. Merton, Robert K., and Gaston, Jerry, eds. 1977. The Sociology of Science in Europe, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
131. Mirowski, Philip. 1996. The economic consequences of Philip Kitcher. Social Epistemology, 10: 153–170.
132. Mirowski, Philip. 1997. On playing the economics trump card in the philosophy of science: why it didn't work for Michael Polanyi. Philosophy of Science 64, Proceedings,: S127–S138.
133. Mowery, David C., ed. 1994. Science and Technology Policy in Interdependent Economies, Boston: Kluwer.
134. Mowery, David C., and Rosenberg, Nathan. 1989. Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
135. Nagi, Saad, and Convin, Ronald, eds. 1972. The Social Contexts of Research, New York: Wiley.
136. National Academy of Sciences. 1989. Information Technology and the Conduct of Research - The User's View (Report of the Panel on Information Technology and the Conduct of Research), Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
137. National Academy of Sciences. 1992. Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process, Vol. 1, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
138. National Academy of Sciences. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
139. National Science Board. 1993. Science and Engineering Indicators - 1993, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
140. National Science Foundation. 1987. Foreign Citizens in US Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook, Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
141. National Science Foundation. 1991. Adapting to the Future: Report of the BBS Task Force Looking to the 21st Century, Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
142. Nelson, Julie A., 1992. Gender, metaphor, and the definition of economics. Economics and Philosophy, 8: 103–125.
143. Nelson, Richard R., 67. The simple economics of basic scientific research. Journal of Political Economy,: 297–306.
144. Nelson, Richard R., 1962. “ The link between science and invention: the case of the transistor ”. In The Rate and Direction of Incentive Activity: Economic and Social Factors, Edited by: Nelson, Richard R., 549–583. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
145. Nickles, Thomas. 1995. Philosophy of science and history of science. Osiris, 10: 139–163.
146. Nunberg, Geoffrey. 1993. The place of books in an age of electronic reproduction. Representations, 42: 13–37.
147. OECD. 1994. Science and Technology Policy: Review and Outlook, Paris: OECD.
148. Office of Technology Assessment. 1991. Federally Funded Research: Decisions for a Decade, Washington, DC: USGPO.
149. Peirce, Charles S., 1879. “ Note on the theory of the economy of research ”. In United States Coast Survey for the fiscal year ending June 1876, Washington, DC: USGPO.
150. Peters, Lois, and Etzkowitz, Henry. 1991. Profiting from knowledge: organizational innovations and the evolution of academic norms. Minerva,: 133–166.
151. Pickering, Andrew. 1995a. The Mangle of Practice, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
152. Pickering, Andrew. 1995b. Cyborg history and the World War II regime. Perspectives on Science, 3: 1–48.
153. Polanyi, Michael. 1962. The republic of science: its political and economic theory. Minerva, 1: 54–73.
154. Polanyi, Michael. 1969. Knowing and Being, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
155. Power, Michael. 1994. From the science of accounts to the financial accountability of science. Science in Context, 3: 355–388.
156. Press, Frank. 1995. Needed: coherent budgeting for science and technology. Science, 270: 1448–1450.
157. Price, Derek de Solla. 1963. Big Science, Little Science, New York: Columbia University Press.
158. Price, Derek de Solla. 1975. Science since Babylon, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
159. Price, Derek de Solla. 1986. Little Science, Big Science.. and Beyond, New York: Columbia University Press.
160. Radnitzky, Gerald. 1981. “ Progress and rationality in research ”. In On Scientific Discovery: The Erice Lectures 1977, Edited by: Grmek, J., Cohen, R., and Cimino, G., Dordrecht: Reidel.
161. Radnitzky, Gerald. 1987. The ‘economic’ approach to the philosophy of science. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 38: 159–179. (Also appeared in Manuscrito 10:7–29.)
162. Radnitzky, Gerald. 1989. “ Falsification looked at from an economic point of view ”. In Imre Lakatos and Theories of Scientific Change, Edited by: Gavroglu, K., Boston: Kluwer.
163. Radnitzky, Gerald, and Bernholz, Peter, eds. 1987. Economic Imperialism, New York: Paragon.
164. Ravetz, Jerome. 1971. Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
165. Reingold, Nathan. 1991. Science American Style, New Bmnswick: Rutgers University Press.
166. Reingold, Nathan. 1995. Choosing the future: the US research community, 1944–46. Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 25: 301–327.
167. Rescher, Nicholas. 1978. Scientific Progress: A Philosophical Essay on the Economics of Research in Natural Science, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
168. Rescher, Nicholas. 1989. Cognitive Economy, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
169. Romer, Paul M., 1990. Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98: S71–S102.
170. Rosenberg, Nathan. 1982. Inside the Black Box: Technology, Economics, and History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
171. Rosenberg, Nathan. 1994. Exploring the Black Box, New York: Cambridge University Press.
172. Schmitt, Frederick, ed. 1994. Socializing Epistemology, Lanharn, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
173. Sent, Esther-Mirjam. 1996. What an economist can teach Nancy Cartwright. Social Epistemology, 10: 171–192.
174. Sent, Esther-Mirjam. 1997. An economist's glance at Goldman's economics. Philosophy of Science 64, Proceedings,: S139–S148.
175. Sent, Esther-Mirjam. 1998. The Evolving Rationality of Rational Expectations: An Assessment of Thomas Sargent's Achievements, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
176. Simon, Herbert. 1982. Models of Bounded Rationality, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
177. Simon, Herbert. 1989. “ The scientist as problem solver ”. In Complex Information Processing: The Impact of Herbert A. Simon, Edited by: Klahr, David, and Kotovsky, Kenneth. 375–398. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
178. Slaughter, Sheila, and Rhoades, Gary. 1996. The emergence of a competitiveness research and development policy coalition and the commercialization of academic science. Science, Technology, and Human Values, 21: 303–339.
179. Solomon, Miriam (1994) ‘Is there an invisible hand of reason?' working paper, Department of Philosophy, Temple University.
180. Stephan, Paula E., 1996. The economics of science. Journal of Economic Literature, 34: 1199–1235.
181. Stephan, Paula E., and Levin, Sharon G., 1988. “ Measures of scientific output and the age-productivity relationship ”. In Quantitative Studies of Science and Technology, Edited by: van Raan, A. F. J., Amsterdam North-Holland: Elsevier Science.
182. Stephan, Paula E., and Levin, Sharon G., 1992. Striking the Mother Lode in Science, New York: Oxford University Press.
183. Stigler, George J., 1961. The economics of information. Journal of Political Economy, 69: 213–225.
184. Storer, N., 1966. The Social System of Science, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
185. Tullock, Gordon. 1966. The Organization of Inquiry, Durham: Duke University Press.
186. Turner, Stephen. 1994. The Social Theory of Practices, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
187. Tybout, Richard. 1972. “ The economics of research ”. In The Social Contexts of Research, Edited by: Nagi, Saad, and Corwin, Ronald. New York: Wiley.
188. Veblen, Thorstein. 1954. The Higher Learning in America, Stanford, CA: Academic Reprints.
189. Wade, Nicholas. 1984. The Science Business, Report of the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force, New York: Priority Press.
190. Werskey, Gary. 1978. The Visible College, New York: Holt, Rinehart.
191. Whiston, Thomas G., and Geiger, Roger L., 1992. Research and Higher Education: The United Kingdom and the United States, London: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.
192. Whitley, Richard. 1984. The Intellectual and Social Organization of the Sciences, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
193. Whitley, Richard, and Geiger, Roger L., 1991. The organization and role of journals in economics and other scientific fields. Economic Notes, 20: 6–32.
194. Wible, James R., 1992. Fraud in science: an economic approach. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 22: 5–27.
195. Wible, James R., 1994a. Charles Sanders Peirce's economy of research. Journal of Economic Methodology, 1: 135–160.
196. Wible, James R., 1994b. Rescher's economic philosophy of science. Journal of Economic Methodology, 1: 314–329.
197. Wible, James R., 1995a. The economic organization of science, the firm and the marketplace. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 25: 35–67.
198. Wible, James R. (1995b) ‘Peirce's mathematical note ‘On political economy’ and the axiom of transitivity’, working paper, Department of Economics, University of New Hampshire.
199. Wible, James R., 1998a. “ Economics of science ”. In Handbook of Economic Methodology, Edited by: Davis, John, Hands, Wade, and Mäki, Uskali. 145–153. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
200. Wible, James R., 1998b. The Economics of Science: Methodology and Epistemology as if Economics Really Mattered, London: Routledge.
201. Williamson, Oliver. 1975. Markets and Hierarchies, New York: Free Press.
202. Woolgar, Steve, ed. 1988. Knowledge and Reflexivity, London: Sage Publications.
203. Ziman, John M., 1968. Public Knowledge, London: Cambridge University Press.
204. Ziman, John M., 1994. “ Steady State ”. In Prometheus Bound: Science in a Dynamic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.