Scottish chemistry, classification and the early mineralogical career of the 'ingenious' Rev. Dr John Walker (1746 to 1779)

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 411-438

  Eddy, M D ^a  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0041913976     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087402004806     Document Type: Article

References (234)

1. Walker's time in this position has been detailed in M. D. Eddy, 'Merely a natural history of the Earth: geology, mineralogy and time in John Walker's University of Edinburgh Natural History Lectures', History of Science (2001), 39, 95-119;
2. Walker's time in this position has been detailed in M. D. Eddy, 'Merely a natural history of the Earth: geology, mineralogy and time in John Walker's University of Edinburgh Natural History Lectures', History of Science (2001), 39, 95-119; C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. Peter Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; G. Taylor, 'John Walker, D.D., F.R.S.E. 1731-1803. Notable Scottish naturalist', Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (1959), 38, 180-203; John Walker, Lectures in Geology - Including Hydrography, Mineralogy, and Meteorology with an Introduction to Biology by John Walker (ed. H. W. Scott), London, 1966.
3. Walker's time in this position has been detailed in M. D. Eddy, 'Merely a natural history of the Earth: geology, mineralogy and time in John Walker's University of Edinburgh Natural History Lectures', History of Science (2001), 39, 95-119; C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. Peter Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; G. Taylor, 'John Walker, D.D., F.R.S.E. 1731-1803. Notable Scottish naturalist', Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (1959), 38, 180-203; John Walker, Lectures in Geology - Including Hydrography, Mineralogy, and Meteorology with an Introduction to Biology by John Walker (ed. H. W. Scott), London, 1966.
4. Walker's time in this position has been detailed in M. D. Eddy, 'Merely a natural history of the Earth: geology, mineralogy and time in John Walker's University of Edinburgh Natural History Lectures', History of Science (2001), 39, 95-119; C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. Peter Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; G. Taylor, 'John Walker, D.D., F.R.S.E. 1731-1803. Notable Scottish naturalist', Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (1959), 38, 180-203; John Walker, Lectures in Geology - Including Hydrography, Mineralogy, and Meteorology with an Introduction to Biology by John Walker (ed. H. W. Scott), London, 1966.
5. Studies that address the actual practice of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mineralogy in detail are few. Some of the following sources, however, give a helpful overview: H. Torrens, 'Early collection in the field of geology', in The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (ed. O. Impey and A. MacGregor), Oxford, 1986, 204-13; W. E. Wilson, 'The history of mineral collecting 1530-1799', Mineralogical Record (1994), 25, 1-264; W. C. Smith, 'Early mineralogy in Great Britain and Ireland', Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series (1978), 6, 49-74; A. Livingstone, Minerals of Scotland: Past and Present, Edinburgh, forthcoming 2002.
6. Studies that address the actual practice of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mineralogy in detail are few. Some of the following sources, however, give a helpful overview: H. Torrens, 'Early collection in the field of geology', in The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (ed. O. Impey and A. MacGregor), Oxford, 1986, 204-13; W. E. Wilson, 'The history of mineral collecting 1530-1799', Mineralogical Record (1994), 25, 1-264; W. C. Smith, 'Early mineralogy in Great Britain and Ireland', Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series (1978), 6, 49-74; A. Livingstone, Minerals of Scotland: Past and Present, Edinburgh, forthcoming 2002.
7. Studies that address the actual practice of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mineralogy in detail are few. Some of the following sources, however, give a helpful overview: H. Torrens, 'Early collection in the field of geology', in The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (ed. O. Impey and A. MacGregor), Oxford, 1986, 204-13; W. E. Wilson, 'The history of mineral collecting 1530-1799', Mineralogical Record (1994), 25, 1-264; W. C. Smith, 'Early mineralogy in Great Britain and Ireland', Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series (1978), 6, 49-74; A. Livingstone, Minerals of Scotland: Past and Present, Edinburgh, forthcoming 2002.
8. Studies that address the actual practice of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century mineralogy in detail are few. Some of the following sources, however, give a helpful overview: H. Torrens, 'Early collection in the field of geology', in The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (ed. O. Impey and A. MacGregor), Oxford, 1986, 204-13; W. E. Wilson, 'The history of mineral collecting 1530-1799', Mineralogical Record (1994), 25, 1-264; W. C. Smith, 'Early mineralogy in Great Britain and Ireland', Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series (1978), 6, 49-74; A. Livingstone, Minerals of Scotland: Past and Present, Edinburgh, forthcoming 2002.
9. For instance, see Alston's Lectures on the Materia Medica Containing the Natural History of Drugs, their Virtues and Doses: also Directions for the Study of the Materia Medica; and an Appendix on the Method of Prescribing/Published from the Manuscript of the Late Dr. Charles Alston ... by John Hope, London, 1770.
10. These men are treated in E. A. Underwood, Boerhaave's Men at Leyden and After, Edinburgh, 1977.
11. R. G. W. Anderson, 'Chymie to chemistry at Edinburgh', Royal Society of Chemistry Historical Group Occasional Papers (2000), 2, 1-28.
12. The chemical aspects of Edinburgh's pharmacological scene are specifically treated in A. H. Maehle's Drugs on Trial: Experimental Pharmacology and Therapeutic Innovation in the Eighteenth Century, Amsterdam, 1999.
13. John Walker, Systema Fossilium, Bound MS, Glasgow University Library (subsequently GUL) GB 247, MS Gen 1061 (1795 Watermark), f. 2. The introduction to this manuscript (which contains the above quotation) was republished over twenty years later as 'Notice of mineralogical journeys, and of a mineralogical system, by the late Rev. Dr. John Walker, Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh', Edinburgh Philosophical Journal (1822), 6, 88-95.
14. John Walker, Systema Fossilium, Bound MS, Glasgow University Library (subsequently GUL) GB 247, MS Gen 1061 (1795 Watermark), f. 2. The introduction to this manuscript (which contains the above quotation) was republished over twenty years later as 'Notice of mineralogical journeys, and of a mineralogical system, by the late Rev. Dr. John Walker, Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh', Edinburgh Philosophical Journal (1822), 6, 88-95.
15. This is the same Robert Steuart (also spelled Stewart) who taught David Hume and who founded 'The Physiological Library'. See M. Barfoot, 'Hume and the culture of science in the early 18th century', in Studies in the Philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. M. A. Stewart), Oxford, 1990, 151-90.
16. Robert Boyle, The Philosophical Works of the Honourable Robert Boyle Esq., 2nd edn. (ed. Peter Shaw), London, 1738.
17. John Woodward, An Attempt Towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England, in a Catalogue of the English Fossils in the Collection of J. Woodward, M.D., London, 1728-9.
18. Johann Joachimi Beccheri, Physica Subterranea - Profundam Subterraneorum Genesin, E Principiis Hucusque Ignotis, Ostendens ... et Specimen Beccharianium, Fundamentorum Documentorum, Experimentorum, Subjunxit Georg Ernestus Stahl, Lipsiæ, MDCCXXXIIX.
19. Georg Stahl, Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry: or, the Foundation of a Scientifical Manner of Inquiring into and Preparing the Natural and Artificial Bodies for Uses of Life (tr. Peter Shaw), London, 1730.
20. Herman Boerhaave, Elements of Chemistry (tr. Timothy Dallowe), London, 1735.
21. There are four of Alston's books listed in the 1804 posthumous catalogue of Walker's library: Cornelius Elliot, A Catalogue of the Books in Natural History with a Few Others, which Belonged to the Late Rev. Dr. Walker, Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, published by C. Stewart, 1804. Edinburgh University Special Collections (subsequently EUL) La.III.352/6. See Nos. 61, 58, 66, 220, 562.
22. Maurice P. Crosland, Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry, London, 1962.
23. David Oldroyd treats these two different definitions of earth in 'Some phlogistic mineralogical schemes, illustrative of the evolution of the concept of "Earth" in the 17th and 18th Centuries', Annals of Science (1974), 31, 269-306.
24. This definition was offered countless times in William Cullen's lectures and was even used by William Withering in his translation of Tobern Bergman's Outlines of Mineralogy, Birmingham, 1783, §20. See Cullen's discussion of Salts in L. Dobbin, 'A Cullen manuscript of 1753', Annals of Science (1936), 1, 138-56.
25. This definition was offered countless times in William Cullen's lectures and was even used by William Withering in his translation of Tobern Bergman's Outlines of Mineralogy, Birmingham, 1783, §20. See Cullen's discussion of Salts in L. Dobbin, 'A Cullen manuscript of 1753', Annals of Science (1936), 1, 138-56.
26. N. E. Emerton masterfully traces this intellectual lineage from Plato to the eighteenth century in The Scientific Reinterpretation of Form, London, 1984. The role of Earths in eighteenth-century chemistry is treated in A. Duncan, Laws and Order in Eighteenth-Century Chemistry, Oxford, 1996, 159-68.
27. N. E. Emerton masterfully traces this intellectual lineage from Plato to the eighteenth century in The Scientific Reinterpretation of Form, London, 1984. The role of Earths in eighteenth-century chemistry is treated in A. Duncan, Laws and Order in Eighteenth-Century Chemistry, Oxford, 1996, 159-68.
28. Boyle, op. cit. (8), 143.
29. Woodward, op. cit. (9), p. x.
30. Woodward, op. cit. (9), pp. x-xi.
31. Woodward, however, does state that he believed that the composition of 'earth' remained relatively constant - even if it was moved about by a flood. John Woodward, An Essay Toward a Natural History of the Earth: And Terrestrial Bodies, Especially Minerals, London, 1695, 220, 260-2.
32. For more on Walker's later conception of Primary Earths, see Eddy, op. cit. (1).
33. Beccheri, op. cit. (10), 49.
34. A discussion of how chemical 'principles' were used in mineralogy at this time can be found in D. R. Oldroyd's 'The doctrine of property-conferring principles in chemistry: origins and antecedents', Organon (1976/7), 12/13, 139-55. For the chemical processes used to analyse Primary Earths, see Oldroyd's 'Some eighteenth-century methods for the chemical analysis of minerals', Journal of Chemical Education (1973), 50, 337-40.
35. A discussion of how chemical 'principles' were used in mineralogy at this time can be found in D. R. Oldroyd's 'The doctrine of property-conferring principles in chemistry: origins and antecedents', Organon (1976/7), 12/13, 139-55. For the chemical processes used to analyse Primary Earths, see Oldroyd's 'Some eighteenth-century methods for the chemical analysis of minerals', Journal of Chemical Education (1973), 50, 337-40.
36. Oldroyd, op. cit. (15), 269-305.
37. Stahl, op. cit. (11), 13. At this time, 'Primitive Earth' was used interchangeably with 'Primary Earth'.
38. D. Oldroyd examines some of the philosophical aspects of Stahl's chemistry in 'An examination G. E. Stahl's Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry', Ambix (1973), 20, 36-52.
39. R. Laudan, From Mineralogy to Geology: The Foundations of a Science, 1650-1830, London, 1987, 47-69.
40. Emerton, op. cit. (17), 225-6.
41. For instance, in his 1780s and 1790s geology lectures, Walker cites the following of Becher's works: Chymisches Laboratorium, Frankfurt, 1680; Natur-Kündigung der Metallen, Frankfurt, 1679; Parnassi Illustrati ... Mineralogia, Ulm, 1663;
42. For instance, in his 1780s and 1790s geology lectures, Walker cites the following of Becher's works: Chymisches Laboratorium, Frankfurt, 1680; Natur-Kündigung der Metallen, Frankfurt, 1679; Parnassi Illustrati ... Mineralogia, Ulm, 1663;
43. For instance, in his 1780s and 1790s geology lectures, Walker cites the following of Becher's works: Chymisches Laboratorium, Frankfurt, 1680; Natur-Kündigung der Metallen, Frankfurt, 1679; Parnassi Illustrati ... Mineralogia, Ulm, 1663;
44. Physica Subterraneae, Frankfurt, 1703.
45. See Walker, op. cit. (1), 271.
46. Walker, op. cit. (1), 'Mineralogy lecture', 224-5. This edition of Walker's work only includes his introductory lecture on mineralogy. The rest of the manuscript notes taken by students during his mineralogy lectures are housed in EUL.
47. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 4.
48. See M. D. Eddy, 'The doctrine of salts and Rev. John Walker's analysis of a Scottish spa (1749-1761)', Ambix (2001), 48, 137-60.
49. Pierre Joseph Macquer, Élémens de chymie théorique, Paris, 1749; Elémens de chymie-pratique. Contenant la description des opérations fondamentales de la chymie, avec des explications & des remarques sur chaque opération, Paris, 1751.
50. Pierre Joseph Macquer, Élémens de chymie théorique, Paris, 1749; Elémens de chymie-pratique. Contenant la description des opérations fondamentales de la chymie, avec des explications & des remarques sur chaque opération, Paris, 1751.
51. William Cullen, 'Misc. Lectures Notes, Re: Earths by William Cullen', GUL MS Cullen 795, f. 1.
52. Also treated in ff. 2-8. Compare to Black's 1767/8 definition: 'Terrea sunt souda, sapida, nec aqua pura Simplici Solubilia nec Inflammabilia & nunquam fusibilia quin in Vitrum Abuent.' Thomas Cochrane, Notes from Doctor Black's Lectures on Chemistry 1767/8 (ed. Douglas McKie), Wilmslow, 1966, 27.
53. GUL MS Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 6. Johann Heinrich Pott, Lithogéognosie ou examen chimique des pierres et des terres en général: et du talc, de la topaze & de la statite en particulier avec une dissertation sur le feu et sur la lumière, Paris, 1753. The German edition first appeared in 1745. Pott's Earths and their relation to mineralogy are discussed in T. M. Porter, 'The promotion of mining and the advancement of science: the chemical revolution of mineralogy', Annals of Science (1981), 38, 543-70, 556-8.
54. GUL MS Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 6. Johann Heinrich Pott, Lithogéognosie ou examen chimique des pierres et des terres en général: et du talc, de la topaze & de la statite en particulier avec une dissertation sur le feu et sur la lumière, Paris, 1753. The German edition first appeared in 1745. Pott's Earths and their relation to mineralogy are discussed in T. M. Porter, 'The promotion of mining and the advancement of science: the chemical revolution of mineralogy', Annals of Science (1981), 38, 543-70, 556-8.
55. Cullen used the term 'Primitive Earths'. These are clearly stated in the 'Pharmaceuticæ Cullini' section of Black's 1767/8 chemistry lecture notes. Cochrane, op. cit. (35), 26-8.
56. For more on Cullen,s chemical conception of Vitrescible Earths, see 'Of vitrescent earths and vitrifications ... by Cullen', GUL MS Cullen 268/8.
57. The following definition of the four Earths are taken from William Cullen, 'A chemical examination of common simple stones & earths ... by William Cullen with Notes [Incomplete] on alkali earths and the Earth's structure', GUL MS Cullen 264, f. 1.
58. Cullen, op. cit. (39), f. 1.
59. GUL MS Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 1 and f. 5.
60. GUL MS Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 5.
61. Cullen's saline analysis is discussed in several places in A. L. Donovan's Philosophical Chemistry: The Doctrines and Discoveries of William Cullen and Joseph Black, Edinburgh, 1975.
62. GUL MS Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 1.
63. Saline experimentation was arguably a leading form of humid analysis in both Scotland and France during the early to mid-eighteenth century. For the French scene, see Frederic L. Holmes, 'Analysis by fire and solvent extractions: the metamorphosis of a tradition', Isis (1971), 62, 129-48.
64. Cullen, op. cit. (35), f. 1.
65. Cullen, op. cit. (39), f. 7.
66. John Walker, 'An account of a new medicinal well, lately discovered near Moffat, in Annandale, in the county of Dumfries. By Mr. John Walker, of Borgue-House, near Kirkcudbright, in Scotland', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1757), 50, 117-47. The chemical content of this article is treated in Eddy, op. cit. (33).
67. John Walker, 'An account of a new medicinal well, lately discovered near Moffat, in Annandale, in the county of Dumfries. By Mr. John Walker, of Borgue-House, near Kirkcudbright, in Scotland', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1757), 50, 117-47. The chemical content of this article is treated in Eddy, op. cit. (33).
68. Tripela is Cullen's word for 'tripoli', which is 'A fine earth used as a polishing-powder, consisting mainly of decomposed siliceous matter, esp. that formed of the shells of diatoms ; called also infusorial earth or rotten-stone'. OED.
69. Cullen, op. cit. (39), f. 7.
70. Cullen, op. cit. (39), f. 7.
71. Robert Boyle, General Heads for the Natural History of a Country Great or Small, London, 1692. For an example of his application of chemistry to natural history, see Robert Boyle, Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental History of Mineral Waters, London, 1684.
72. Robert Boyle, General Heads for the Natural History of a Country Great or Small, London, 1692. For an example of his application of chemistry to natural history, see Robert Boyle, Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental History of Mineral Waters, London, 1684.
73. William Cullen, 'Fragments of a lecture by Cullen concluding and summarising the first part of the course; natural history and its productions', GUL MS Cullen 258, ff. 2-3.
74. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 16.
75. R. G. W. Anderson, The Playfair Collection and the Teaching of Chemistry at the university of Edinburgh 1713-1858, Edinburgh, 1978, 58.
76. Walker went on to write similar lists for his students: 'A memorandum given by Dr. Walker, professor of natural history, Edinburgh, to a young gentleman going to India, with some additions', The Bee (1793), 17, 330-3. Likewise, Robert Jameson, Walker's student and successor, went on to do the same: 'Literary and scientific intelligence', The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany; A New Series of the Scots Magazine (1817), 1, 367-9.
77. Walker went on to write similar lists for his students: 'A memorandum given by Dr. Walker, professor of natural history, Edinburgh, to a young gentleman going to India, with some additions', The Bee (1793), 17, 330-3. Likewise, Robert Jameson, Walker's student and successor, went on to do the same: 'Literary and scientific intelligence', The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany; A New Series of the Scots Magazine (1817), 1, 367-9.
78. For Walker's later involvement with the University of Edinburgh Natural History Museum, see C. D. Waterston, Collections in Context: The Museum of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Inception of a National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1997, 1-41.
79. EUL Black MS 873-5. John Hope [second Earl of Hopetoun] to Joseph Black, 19 May 1770, ff. 28-30. John Hope to Joseph Black, 9 June 1770, f. 31. A. J. Alexander [from Bracelot, Grenada] to Joseph Black, 31 April 1773, ff. 58-62. John Graham [from Cumberland] to Joseph Black, n.d., ff. 76-7.
80. As Professor of Natural History, Walker was the academic patron (along with Joseph Black) of the Natural History Society of Edinburgh organized by students during the 1780s and during this time chemistry played a prominent role in the papers that were given. D. E. Allen, 'James Edward Smith and the Natural History Society of Edinburgh', Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, 8 (1978), 483-93. See especially page 489.
81. John Walker, 'Public Lecture, Anno 1788, on the Utility and Progress of Natural History and Manner of Philosophising', Essays on Natural History and Rural Economy (ed. Charles Stewart), Edinburgh, 1808, 323-47.
82. Walker, op. cit. (48).
83. John Walker, Index Librorium (1761), Bound MS, EUL, Dc.2.38. This not only lists the books that were in Walker's possession, it also offers a methodological commentary of some of them.
84. Originally compiled into a report and named the Kings MS, this work was published in 1980 as The Rev. Dr. John Walker's Report on the Hebrides of 1764 and 1771 (ed. Margaret M. McKay), Edinburgh, 1980. Augmentations of the sections on Jura and Iona were eventually published in Walker's Essays, op. cit. (60), as 'History of the Island of Icolumbkil', 111-99 and 'History of the Island of Jura', 219-81.
85. Originally compiled into a report and named the Kings MS, this work was published in 1980 as The Rev. Dr. John Walker's Report on the Hebrides of 1764 and 1771 (ed. Margaret M. McKay), Edinburgh, 1980. Augmentations of the sections on Jura and Iona were eventually published in Walker's Essays, op. cit. (60), as 'History of the Island of Icolumbkil', 111-99 and 'History of the Island of Jura', 219-81.
86. Originally compiled into a report and named the Kings MS, this work was published in 1980 as The Rev. Dr. John Walker's Report on the Hebrides of 1764 and 1771 (ed. Margaret M. McKay), Edinburgh, 1980. Augmentations of the sections on Jura and Iona were eventually published in Walker's Essays, op. cit. (60), as 'History of the Island of Icolumbkil', 111-99 and 'History of the Island of Jura', 219-81.
87. Originally compiled into a report and named the Kings MS, this work was published in 1980 as The Rev. Dr. John Walker's Report on the Hebrides of 1764 and 1771 (ed. Margaret M. McKay), Edinburgh, 1980. Augmentations of the sections on Jura and Iona were eventually published in Walker's Essays, op. cit. (60), as 'History of the Island of Icolumbkil', 111-99 and 'History of the Island of Jura', 219-81.
88. John Walker, Adversaria (1766-72), Bound MS, GUL MS Murray 27.
89. Adversaria's semi-aphoristic style in parts is similar to the approach taken by Linnaeus in Philosophica Botanica, Stockholm, 1751. Joseph Black was also interested in such a type of personal notation. See Thomas Thomson, The History of Chemistry Vol. 1, London, 1830, 315.
90. Adversaria's semi-aphoristic style in parts is similar to the approach taken by Linnaeus in Philosophica Botanica, Stockholm, 1751. Joseph Black was also interested in such a type of personal notation. See Thomas Thomson, The History of Chemistry Vol. 1, London, 1830, 315.
91. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 157. The Greek characters are Walker's. The 'Asteno' fossil in the ι class might possibly be 'Asteria'.
92. This was also the system used by Black (Cullen's former student) during the 1760s; the only difference was that he added the sixth category of 'Airs'. See Cochrane, op. cit. (35).
93. Elsewhere in Adversaria, op. cit. (64), Walker held that fluors were '"compound Bodies, consisting of a Salt and an Earth". And that therefore, they should be strictly ranked among the Salia, having no Title [title] to the Character of simple primitive Earths, which have been given them'. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 145.
94. Cochrane, op. cit. (35), 173-90.
95. For instance, see the 'petrification' classes in Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Minéralogie, ou description générale des substances du règne minéral. Par Jean Gotschalk Wallerius, Professeur Royal de Chymie, de Métallurgie & Pharmacie dans l'Université d'Upsal, de l'Académie Impériale de Curieux de la Nature, Paris, 1753 and in Fredrick Augusti Cartheusar, Elementa mineralogie, Frankfurt, 1755.
96. For instance, see the 'petrification' classes in Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Minéralogie, ou description générale des substances du règne minéral. Par Jean Gotschalk Wallerius, Professeur Royal de Chymie, de Métallurgie & Pharmacie dans l'Université d'Upsal, de l'Académie Impériale de Curieux de la Nature, Paris, 1753 and in Fredrick Augusti Cartheusar, Elementa mineralogie, Frankfurt, 1755.
97. 71 Walker was fascinated with mineral water for his entire career. In addition to his 1757 article, op. cit. (48), and the mineral water works in his 1761 Index, there are several manuscript notes from the 1780s that address the topic. See EUL Dc.1.58 f. 2, f. 40, and ff. 90-92.
98. Emanuel Mendes Da Costa, A Natural History of Fossils, London, 1757.
99. G. S. Rousseau and D. Haycock, 'The jew of Crane Court: Emanuel Mendes da Costa (1717-91) natural history and natural excess', History of Science (2000), 38, 139-42.
100. Charles Linné, A General System of Nature, through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals: Systematically Divided into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties - Vol. VII (tr. William Turton), Swansea, 1804, 9. Also see Caroli a Linné, Systema Naturœ per Regnatria Naturœ, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus & Differentiis. Tomus III. Cum Privilegio Siœ Riœ Mitis Sveciœ, & Electoris Saxon, Homiæ, 1768, 11.
101. Charles Linné, A General System of Nature, through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals: Systematically Divided into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties - Vol. VII (tr. William Turton), Swansea, 1804, 9. Also see Caroli a Linné, Systema Naturœ per Regnatria Naturœ, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus & Differentiis. Tomus III. Cum Privilegio Siœ Riœ Mitis Sveciœ, & Electoris Saxon, Homiæ, 1768, 11.
102. See Linné General System, op. cit. (74), 3-9; Linné Systema Naturœ, op. cit. (74), 3-11.
103. See Linné General System, op. cit. (74), 3-9; Linné Systema Naturœ, op. cit. (74), 3-11.
104. See Eddy, op. cit. (33), 101-2.
105. Roy Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain 1660-1815, Cambridge, 1977, 112-18.
106. Linnaeus's conceptual framework was hard for most chemical mineralogists to escape, even in his native Sweden. See Hjalmar Fors, 'Chemistry and the mining industry in eighteenth-century Sweden', unpublished manuscript.
107. Some of the others were John Hill's A General Natural History: Or, New and Accurate Descriptions of the Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals of the Different Parts of the World ..., London, 1748-52 and Woodward's An Attempt Towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England; In a Catalogue, op. cit. (9).
108. Some of the others were John Hill's A General Natural History: Or, New and Accurate Descriptions of the Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals of the Different Parts of the World ..., London, 1748-52 and Woodward's An Attempt Towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England; In a Catalogue, op. cit. (9).
109. Da Costa, op. cit. (72), p. iv.
110. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 152.
111. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, Vol. III, London, 1962, 169-72.
112. Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, op. cit. (70). The original was published in Swedish (Stockholm, 1747 and 1750). The French edition was based upon the German translation (Berlin, 1750).
113. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 152.
114. Jacques-Christophe Valmont de Bomare, Minéralogie, ou nouvelle exposition du regne minéral. Ouvrage dans lequel on a tâché de ranger dans l'ordre le plus natural les individus de regène, & où l'on expose leurs propriétés & usages méchaniques; avec un dictionnaire nomendateur et des tables synoptiques, Paris, 1762. Quotation taken from the frontispiece.
115. Cronstedt's first chemical mineralogy system was published in Swedish as Försök Till Mineralogie, Stockholm, 1758; however it was its 1760 German translation that brought it to the attention of mineralogists in the German-, French- and English-speaking countries. See Cronsted's entry in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography ; D. R. Oldroyd, 'A note on the status of A. F. Cronstedt's simple earths and his analytical methods', Isis (1974), 65, 506-12; Porter, op. cit. (36), 558-60. Interestingly, James Hutton also used Cronstedt's work. See J. Jones, 'The geological collection of James Hutton', Annals of Science (1984), 41, 223-44, 239.
116. however it was its 1760 German translation that brought it to the attention of mineralogists in the German-, French- and English-speaking countries. See Cronsted's entry in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography ;
117. however it was its 1760 German translation that brought it to the attention of mineralogists in the German-, French- and English-speaking countries. See Cronsted's entry in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography ; D. R. Oldroyd, 'A note on the status of A. F. Cronstedt's simple earths and his analytical methods', Isis (1974), 65, 506-12; Porter, op. cit. (36), 558-60. Interestingly, James Hutton also used Cronstedt's work. See J. Jones, 'The geological collection of James Hutton', Annals of Science (1984), 41, 223-44, 239.
118. however it was its 1760 German translation that brought it to the attention of mineralogists in the German-, French- and English-speaking countries. See Cronsted's entry in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography ; D. R. Oldroyd, 'A note on the status of A. F. Cronstedt's simple earths and his analytical methods', Isis (1974), 65, 506-12; Porter, op. cit. (36), 558-60. Interestingly, James Hutton also used Cronstedt's work. See J. Jones, 'The geological collection of James Hutton', Annals of Science (1984), 41, 223-44, 239.
119. however it was its 1760 German translation that brought it to the attention of mineralogists in the German-, French- and English-speaking countries. See Cronsted's entry in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography ; D. R. Oldroyd, 'A note on the status of A. F. Cronstedt's simple earths and his analytical methods', Isis (1974), 65, 506-12; Porter, op. cit. (36), 558-60. Interestingly, James Hutton also used Cronstedt's work. See J. Jones, 'The geological collection of James Hutton', Annals of Science (1984), 41, 223-44, 239.
120. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 7; Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 90.
121. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 7; Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 90.
122. Fabricius had received his medical doctorate from the University of Edinburgh in 1767. His thesis was entitled Tentamen Medicum Inaugurale, de Emetatrophia. Quod, Annuente Summo Numine, Ex Auctoritate Reverendi admodum Viri, Gulielmi Robertson, S.S.T.P., Edinburghi, 1767.
123. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 212.
124. Axel Fredric Cronstedt, An Essay Towards a System of Mineralogy: by Axel Frederic Cronstedt. Translated from the Original Swedish, with Notes, by Gustav von Engestrom. To which is Added, a Treatise on the Pocket-Library, Containing an Easy Method, Used by the Author, for Trying Mineral Bodies, Written by the Translator. The Whole Revised and Corrected, with some Additional Notes by Emanuel Mendes Da Costa, London, 1770.
125. It is worth noting here that Walker does not seem to have been influenced by Werner at any point in his career - even after his student Robert Jameson went to Saxony to study with him during the 1790s. This is most likely because Werner's classification was based on physical characters. See Scott's introduction in op. cit. (1), pp. xxiv-xxv, xxxvii; J. M. Sweet and C. D. Waterston, 'Robert Jameson's approach to the Wernerian Theory of the Earth, 1796', Annals of Science (1967), 23, 81-96, 81-3. Walker also does not seem to have utilized crystallographic criteria.
126. It is worth noting here that Walker does not seem to have been influenced by Werner at any point in his career - even after his student Robert Jameson went to Saxony to study with him during the 1790s. This is most likely because Werner's classification was based on physical characters. See Scott's introduction in op. cit. (1), pp. xxiv-xxv, xxxvii; J. M. Sweet and C. D. Waterston, 'Robert Jameson's approach to the Wernerian Theory of the Earth, 1796', Annals of Science (1967), 23, 81-96, 81-3. Walker also does not seem to have utilized crystallographic criteria.
127. The practice of a physician traversing the woods and fields to find materia medica simples reaches back to Hippocrates. In 1683 the Scottish geographer Sir Robert Sibbald stated, 'As for the Practice of Medicine, Hippocrates hath abundantly proven, that a Physician must, who would practise alright, first know the place.' An Account of the Scotish Atlas, or the Description of Scotland Ancient and Modern, Edinburgh, 1683, 1-2. The link between local naturalism and materia medica in modern times has been treated by D. E. Allen in 'Walking the swards: medical education and the rise and spread of the botanical field class', in D. E. Allen (ed.), Naturalists and Society: The Culture of Natural History in Britain, 1700-1900, Aldershot, 2001, Part I. Also see Chapters 1 and 2 in his The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History, London, 1976.
128. The practice of a physician traversing the woods and fields to find materia medica simples reaches back to Hippocrates. In 1683 the Scottish geographer Sir Robert Sibbald stated, 'As for the Practice of Medicine, Hippocrates hath abundantly proven, that a Physician must, who would practise alright, first know the place.' An Account of the Scotish Atlas, or the Description of Scotland Ancient and Modern, Edinburgh, 1683, 1-2. The link between local naturalism and materia medica in modern times has been treated by D. E. Allen in 'Walking the swards: medical education and the rise and spread of the botanical field class', in D. E. Allen (ed.), Naturalists and Society: The Culture of Natural History in Britain, 1700-1900, Aldershot, 2001, Part I. Also see Chapters 1 and 2 in his The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History, London, 1976.
129. The practice of a physician traversing the woods and fields to find materia medica simples reaches back to Hippocrates. In 1683 the Scottish geographer Sir Robert Sibbald stated, 'As for the Practice of Medicine, Hippocrates hath abundantly proven, that a Physician must, who would practise alright, first know the place.' An Account of the Scotish Atlas, or the Description of Scotland Ancient and Modern, Edinburgh, 1683, 1-2. The link between local naturalism and materia medica in modern times has been treated by D. E. Allen in 'Walking the swards: medical education and the rise and spread of the botanical field class', in D. E. Allen (ed.), Naturalists and Society: The Culture of Natural History in Britain, 1700-1900, Aldershot, 2001, Part I. Also see Chapters 1 and 2 in his The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History, London, 1976.
130. This seems to shed some light on Hugh Torrens's statement that the 'question of how minerals were found in the first place, prior to their being uncovered and mined, has been strangely neglected'. 'Some thoughts on the complex and forgotten history of mineral exploration', Journal of the Open University Geological Society (1997), 17, 1-12.
131. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 5.
132. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), ff. 5-6 ; Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 89.
133. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), ff. 5-6 ; Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 89.
134. '[T]o Dr. Walker the merit is due of having determined mineralogically that Strontites was a new mineral species. Dr. Hope afterwards, by the discovery of the strontitic earth, added to the interest of the determination of Dr. Walker, and proved that Strontites was also a new chemical species.' Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 91, f. '*'.
135. John Walker, 'Mineralogical journal from Edinburgh to London', op. cit. (60), 395-402.
136. In addition to all the short trips listed above, Walker also toured the western side of England from Carlisle to Bristol. See Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 10 or Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 91.
137. In addition to all the short trips listed above, Walker also toured the western side of England from Carlisle to Bristol. See Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 10 or Walker, 'Notice of mineralogical journeys', op. cit. (6), 91.
138. At some point, he also visited Preswick and Cunningham. See Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 222-3 and ff. 216-19.
139. 99 The MD was awarded by the University of Glasgow and the DD was awarded by the University of Edinburgh.
140. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 156.
141. As discussed in the previous section of this paper.
142. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 157-8.
143. The Board of Annexed Estates was set up to oversee the lands that had been confiscated by the Crown after the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion. Governed by a council of nobles, it was to this body that Walker addressed his report. One of the goals of the Board was to determine whether or not the land could be economically improved and whether or not there was still a strong Catholic presence.
144. See McKay's introduction to Walker, op. cit. (63), 1-30. Also see Anon., 'Dr. John Walker's report to the assembly 1-65, concerning the state of the highlands and the islands', Scots Magazine (1766), 28, 680-9;
145. See McKay's introduction to Walker, op. cit. (63), 1-30. Also see Anon., 'Dr. John Walker's report to the assembly 1-65, concerning the state of the highlands and the islands', Scots Magazine (1766), 28, 680-9;
146. Anon., 'Dr. Walker's report concerning the state of the Highlands and Islands, to the General Assembly 1772', Scots Magazine (1772), 34, 288-93.
147. Walker, op. cit. (63), 33. He specifically comments about the coal deposits on the islands of Gigha, Rhum and Eigg. Coal's role in the development of eighteenth-century mineralogy is briefly treated in Hugh Torrens, 'The history of coal prospecting in Britain 1650-1900', in 11th Symposium of the International Cooperation in the History of Technology Committee (ed.), Energie in der Geschichte, Düsseldorf, 1984, 88-95.
148. Walker, op. cit. (63), 33. He specifically comments about the coal deposits on the islands of Gigha, Rhum and Eigg. Coal's role in the development of eighteenth-century mineralogy is briefly treated in Hugh Torrens, 'The history of coal prospecting in Britain 1650-1900', in 11th Symposium of the International Cooperation in the History of Technology Committee (ed.), Energie in der Geschichte, Düsseldorf, 1984, 88-95.
149. 6 In addition to citing Wallerius and Cronstedt in the King's MS, he also mentions the mineralogical works of John Ray, Hans Sloan, Linnaeus, (Louis?) Esteve, James Balfour and Robert Sibbald. See Walker, op. cit. (63), 143, 163, 189-91, 198-9 and 215-19.
150. Emphasis added. Walker, op. cit. (63), 218.
151. For Alum, the question was whether or not it was an alkaline Calcareous Earth. See Frederic Lawrence Holmes, Eighteenth-Century Chemistry as an Investigative Enterprise, Berkeley, 1989, 49-55.
152. Sometimes an acid test could be performed by simply tasting the object under consideration. For instance see his treatment of the South Uist's polygonum amphibium. Walker, op. cit. (63), 76.
153. This could be because Cullen only gave Walker a partial translation of Cronstedt's classification, thereby possibly preventing Walker from knowing about Cronstedt's blowpipe. The fact that Walker does not mention the field use of this test confirms (at present) Staffan Müller-Wille's belief that the instrument was generally confined to laboratory usage. See Müller-Wille's paper given at the History of Science Society Annual Meeting at Denver, Colorado, Session 'The creation of order: scientific classifications in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', November 10, 2001.
154. Walker's keepership formed a unique private-public situation. See Charles W. J. Withers, '"Both useful and ornamental": John Walker's Keepership of Edinburgh University's Natural History Museum, 1770-1803', Journal of the History of Collections (1993), 5, 65-77; Anderson, op. cit. (5), 22; Waterston, op. cit. (57), 11. The transfer from private to public collections during this time is also treated in E. P. Hamm, 'Unpacking Goethe's collections: the public and private in natural history collecting', BJHS (2001), 34, 275-300.
155. Walker's keepership formed a unique private-public situation. See Charles W. J. Withers, '"Both useful and ornamental": John Walker's Keepership of Edinburgh University's Natural History Museum, 1770-1803', Journal of the History of Collections (1993), 5, 65-77; Anderson, op. cit. (5), 22; Waterston, op. cit. (57), 11. The transfer from private to public collections during this time is also treated in E. P. Hamm, 'Unpacking Goethe's collections: the public and private in natural history collecting', BJHS (2001), 34, 275-300.
156. Walker's keepership formed a unique private-public situation. See Charles W. J. Withers, '"Both useful and ornamental": John Walker's Keepership of Edinburgh University's Natural History Museum, 1770-1803', Journal of the History of Collections (1993), 5, 65-77; Anderson, op. cit. (5), 22; Waterston, op. cit. (57), 11. The transfer from private to public collections during this time is also treated in E. P. Hamm, 'Unpacking Goethe's collections: the public and private in natural history collecting', BJHS (2001), 34, 275-300.
157. Walker's keepership formed a unique private-public situation. See Charles W. J. Withers, '"Both useful and ornamental": John Walker's Keepership of Edinburgh University's Natural History Museum, 1770-1803', Journal of the History of Collections (1993), 5, 65-77; Anderson, op. cit. (5), 22; Waterston, op. cit. (57), 11. The transfer from private to public collections during this time is also treated in E. P. Hamm, 'Unpacking Goethe's collections: the public and private in natural history collecting', BJHS (2001), 34, 275-300.
158. See the mineralogy sections of David Pollock's 1797 notes from Walker's lectures: Epitome of Natural History, Vols. 4-9. EUL Gen. 706.D-711.D.
159. John Ellis to Linnaeus, 29 October 1765, in James E. Smith (ed.), A Selection of the Correspondence of Linnaeus and Other Naturalists, New York, 1978, 180.
160. William Walison to Richard Pulteney, 29 October 1765, National Library of Scotland (subsequently NLS) Acc. 9533, No. 314.
161. The most fruitful botanical connection Walker made was Dr Richard Pulteney, with whom he exchanged both plants and seeds. See Walker to Dr Pulteney, 3 June 1768 and Dr Pulteney to Walker, October 1768, Linnean Society Manuscripts No. 238. Facsimilies housed in NLS Acc. 9533, No. 314.
162. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 10.
163. r 1766' in Walker's Adversaria that might have been sent by Da Costa. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 136-7.
164. Here it is worth noting that Walker's entire list of mineralogical suppliers (which is included in the original MS of Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), ff. 10-18) is omitted from the 1820 printing of Systema Fossilium's
165. This interest was soon confirmed by the popularity of Thomas Pennant's tours (1769 and 1772) and by Johnson and Boswell's 1773 tour. See Pennant's A Tour in Scotland 1769, Edinburgh, 2000 and A Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides 1772, Edinburgh, 1998; Samuel Johnson, Johnson's Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D, London, 1930.
166. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 144-52; 174-5. The Pennsylvanian minerals could have possibly come from Benjamin Franklin, whom Walker lists in his Systema Fossilium as a source for his mineralogy collection, op. cit. (6), f. 18.
167. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 144-52; 174-5. The Pennsylvanian minerals could have possibly come from Benjamin Franklin, whom Walker lists in his Systema Fossilium as a source for his mineralogy collection, op. cit. (6), f. 18.
168. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 10.
169. Walker uses the term 'Lapidary' to describe a person who buys or trades minerals.
170. Walker, Systema Fossilium, op. cit. (6), f. 12.
171. Cullen had first met the Duke of Argyll on account of His Grace's desire to obtain chemistry apparatus. By 1751 Cullen was discussing chemistry with Argyll via correspondence. See 'Drafts of four letters from William Cullen to the Duke of Argyll on the subjects of fossil alkali and salt production', GUL, GB 247, MS Cullen 60
172. . Cullen also had strong links to the Duke of Hamilton and his family. Douglas Guthrie, 'William Cullen and his times', in An Eighteenth Lectureship in Chemistry: Essays and Bicentenary Addresses Relating to the Chemistry Department (1747) of Glasgow University (ed. J. W. Cook), Glasgow, 1950, 50-1.
173. It is also likely that Cullen introduced Joseph Black to the Pennicuik family, a relationship that blossomed in the 1770s. See Thomson, op. cit. (65), 328-9.
174. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 213-15.
175. Cullen was also busy promoting Walker to other naturalists like Thomas Pennant: 'I take the liberty of recommending to Mr. Walker a thorough Attention to the Zoology of the Western Isles.' Thomas Pennant to William Cullen, 21 April 1764, EUL La.III.352/1 ff. 9-10.
176. John Walker (transcriber), Abstract from Dr. Cullen's Lectures on Agriculture (c. 1766), EUL Dc.3.70. John Thomson sets the date of these lectures to be around 1766 in his An Account of the Life, Lectures, and Writings of William Cullen Vol. I., Edinburgh, 1859, 64. For more information on these lectures, see C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and Enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. P. Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; 'A neglected Scottish agriculturalist: the "Georgical Lectures" and agricultural writings of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', Agriculture History Review (1985), 33, 132-43.
177. John Walker (transcriber), Abstract from Dr. Cullen's Lectures on Agriculture (c. 1766), EUL Dc.3.70. John Thomson sets the date of these lectures to be around 1766 in his An Account of the Life, Lectures, and Writings of William Cullen Vol. I., Edinburgh, 1859, 64. For more information on these lectures, see C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and Enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. P. Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; 'A neglected Scottish agriculturalist: the "Georgical Lectures" and agricultural writings of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', Agriculture History Review (1985), 33, 132-43.
178. John Walker (transcriber), Abstract from Dr. Cullen's Lectures on Agriculture (c. 1766), EUL Dc.3.70. John Thomson sets the date of these lectures to be around 1766 in his An Account of the Life, Lectures, and Writings of William Cullen Vol. I., Edinburgh, 1859, 64. For more information on these lectures, see C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and Enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. P. Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; 'A neglected Scottish agriculturalist: the "Georgical Lectures" and agricultural writings of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', Agriculture History Review (1985), 33, 132-43.
179. John Walker (transcriber), Abstract from Dr. Cullen's Lectures on Agriculture (c. 1766), EUL Dc.3.70. John Thomson sets the date of these lectures to be around 1766 in his An Account of the Life, Lectures, and Writings of William Cullen Vol. I., Edinburgh, 1859, 64. For more information on these lectures, see C. W. J. Withers, 'Improvement and Enlightenment: agriculture and natural history in the work of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', in Philosophy and Science in the Scottish Enlightenment (ed. P. Jones), Edinburgh, 1988, 102-16; 'A neglected Scottish agriculturalist: the "Georgical Lectures" and agricultural writings of the Rev. Dr. John Walker (1731-1803)', Agriculture History Review (1985), 33, 132-43.
180. As demonstrated by the mineralogy letters exchanged between Black and Lord Hopetoun, op. cit. (58).
181. Also see C. W. J. Withers, 'On georgics and geology: James Hutton's "elements of agriculture" and agricultural science in eighteenth-century Scotland', Agricultural History Review (1994), 42, 38-48.
182. Several other naturalists visited these mines throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. See T. C. Smouth, Report on the Lead-Mining Paper at Hopetoun House, West Lothian, 1625-3799, Edinburgh, 1962 and M. D. Eddy, New DNB (forthcoming, 2004).
183. Porter argues that 'From 1700 until 1775 ... most mineralogists felt that their chief task was to integrate mineralogy and chemistry, for the benefit of mineralogy.' T. Porter, op. cit. (36), 548.
184. See S. Shapin, 'Property, patronage, and the politics of science: the founding of the Royal Society of Edinburgh', BJHS (1974), 7, 1-41.
185. J. Black, op. cit. (58) . Aside from the mineralogical sections on Cullen's chemistry lectures discussed in the first section of this essay, see Joseph Black's sections on 'earths', op. cit. (35) and the entries on mineralogical simples contained in the material medica lecture notes of Alston and Home that are housed in the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. See especially Alston's Lectures on materia medica, 12 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1740] and Home's Lectures on materia medica, 2 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1768].
186. J. Black, op. cit. (58) . Aside from the mineralogical sections on Cullen's chemistry lectures discussed in the first section of this essay, see Joseph Black's sections on 'earths', op. cit. (35) and the entries on mineralogical simples contained in the material medica lecture notes of Alston and Home that are housed in the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. See especially Alston's Lectures on materia medica, 12 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1740] and Home's Lectures on materia medica, 2 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1768].
187. J. Black, op. cit. (58) . Aside from the mineralogical sections on Cullen's chemistry lectures discussed in the first section of this essay, see Joseph Black's sections on 'earths', op. cit. (35) and the entries on mineralogical simples contained in the material medica lecture notes of Alston and Home that are housed in the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. See especially Alston's Lectures on materia medica, 12 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1740] and Home's Lectures on materia medica, 2 vols. [Edinburgh, c. 1768].
188. For a general introduction to the role of mining academies see M. Guntau, 'The natural history of the Earth', in Cultures of Natural History (ed. N. Jardine, J. A. Secord and E. C. Spary), Cambridge, 1996, 211-29; D. Brianta, 'Education and training in the mining industry, 1750-1860: European models and the Italian case', Annals of Science (2000), 57, 267-300. Unfortunately, Brianta's analysis conflates 'Britain' with 'England' (thereby ignoring trends in Scotland). See pages 280-1.
189. For a general introduction to the role of mining academies see M. Guntau, 'The natural history of the Earth', in Cultures of Natural History (ed. N. Jardine, J. A. Secord and E. C. Spary), Cambridge, 1996, 211-29; D. Brianta, 'Education and training in the mining industry, 1750-1860: European models and the Italian case', Annals of Science (2000), 57, 267-300. Unfortunately, Brianta's analysis conflates 'Britain' with 'England' (thereby ignoring trends in Scotland). See pages 280-1.
190. D. P. Miller, '"My favourite studdys": Lord Bute as naturalist', in Lord Bute: Essays in Reinterpretation (ed. Karl W. Schweizer), Leicester, 1988, 213-39. Also see Anonymous, A Catalogue of the Capital Collection of Optical, Mathematical, and Philosophical Instruments and Machines: Late the Property of The Right Hon. the Earl of Bute ..., London, 1793. One of the only known copies of this is housed in Imperial College's Science Museum Library. Furthermore, the 'Walker' listed as buying lots 79, 211, 227 and 233 just might have been John Walker - not Adam Walker as G. L'E. Turner has proposed in 'The auction sales of the Earl of Bute's instruments, 1793', Annals of Science (1967), 23, 213-42, 221 and 227.
191. D. P. Miller, '"My favourite studdys": Lord Bute as naturalist', in Lord Bute: Essays in Reinterpretation (ed. Karl W. Schweizer), Leicester, 1988, 213-39. Also see Anonymous, A Catalogue of the Capital Collection of Optical, Mathematical, and Philosophical Instruments and Machines: Late the Property of The Right Hon. the Earl of Bute ..., London, 1793. One of the only known copies of this is housed in Imperial College's Science Museum Library. Furthermore, the 'Walker' listed as buying lots 79, 211, 227 and 233 just might have been John Walker - not Adam Walker as G. L'E. Turner has proposed in 'The auction sales of the Earl of Bute's instruments, 1793', Annals of Science (1967), 23, 213-42, 221 and 227.
192. D. P. Miller, '"My favourite studdys": Lord Bute as naturalist', in Lord Bute: Essays in Reinterpretation (ed. Karl W. Schweizer), Leicester, 1988, 213-39. Also see Anonymous, A Catalogue of the Capital Collection of Optical, Mathematical, and Philosophical Instruments and Machines: Late the Property of The Right Hon. the Earl of Bute ..., London, 1793. One of the only known copies of this is housed in Imperial College's Science Museum Library. Furthermore, the 'Walker' listed as buying lots 79, 211, 227 and 233 just might have been John Walker - not Adam Walker as G. L'E. Turner has proposed in 'The auction sales of the Earl of Bute's instruments, 1793', Annals of Science (1967), 23, 213-42, 221 and 227.
193. John Hill (1716-75) for example. F. A. Staflau, Linnaeus and the Linnaeans: The Spread of Their Ideas in Systematic Botany, 1735-1789, Utrecht, 1971, 207-10, 231.
194. Eventually published as Botanical Tables, Containing the Different Families of British Plants Distinguished by a Few Obvious Parts of Fructification Rang'd in a Synoptical Method, London, 1784. Also see Ray Desmond, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanic Gardens, London, 1995, 92.
195. Eventually published as Botanical Tables, Containing the Different Families of British Plants Distinguished by a Few Obvious Parts of Fructification Rang'd in a Synoptical Method, London, 1784. Also see Ray Desmond, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanic Gardens, London, 1995, 92.
196. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 200.
197. D. S. Erskine to Bute, 23 March 1767, Cardiff, MSS, Bundle 2. Also quoted in Miller op. cit. (135), 238.
198. Walker, op. cit. (64), f. 194-5.
199. Wilson, op. cit. (2), 69-70.
200. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 178-86.
201. Lord Bute to Baron Mure, 25 March 1772, NLS, Mure of Caldwell Correspondence, MS 4945; Lord Bute to Baron Mure, 14 August 1772, NLS, Mure of Caldwell Correspondence, MS 4945. Part of the former letter states, 'I have taken the liberty to send a box of books for Dr Walker; to [?] address that I beg you would forward him.'
202. Walker to Joseph Banks, 28 March 1767 and Walker to Joseph Banks, 23 January 1772, in The Banks Letters: A Calendar of the Manuscript Correspondence of Sir Joseph Banks, Preserved in the British Museum, the British Museum (Natural History) and other Collections in Great Britain (ed. W. R. Dawson), London, 1958, 849. Both letters are on this page.
203. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 224, 227, 228-9. Naysmyth studied with Linnaeus in Sweden and was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. See G. E. Cokayne, Complete Baronetage, Vol. IV, Gloucester, 1983, 441.
204. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 224, 227, 228-9. Naysmyth studied with Linnaeus in Sweden and was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. See G. E. Cokayne, Complete Baronetage, Vol. IV, Gloucester, 1983, 441.
205. John Pringle to Walker, 19 February 1778. The letter is lost, but is referred to in Walker's 28 February 1788 letter to Lord Hailes, NLS, MS 25303, ff. 5-6. Pringle was Scottish, and was made physician to the queen (1761) and then to the king (1764). He was elected President of the Royal Society in 1772 and was directly involving in editing the 1774 edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. For the latter see D. L. Cowen, Pharmacopoeias and Related Literature in Britain and America, 1618-1847, Aldershot, 2001, 38-40.
206. Walker visited him during his 1765 trip to London. It seems that the Duke of Northumberland and Walker even had several detailed conversations about the differences between Scottish fir and pine trees. Walker, op. cit. (64), ff. 128-31.
207. Northumberland and Bute were discussing natural history as early as the 1750s. It was Northumberland who had introduced John Hill to Bute. Miller, op. cit. (135), 219.
208. Most were Scottish nobles: (1) John Boyle, Earl of Glasgow (1714-75). (2) David Stuart Erskine, Earl of Buchan (1742-1826). (3) George Macartney (1737-1818), whom Walker calls 'Lord Auchinleck', was knighted in 1764, sent as Britain's Envoy to Russia (1764-7) and made Baron in 1776. (4) Sir William Maxwell (c. 1715-71). (5) George Clerk (1715-84), second son of Sir John of Pennicuik. Styled Sir George Clerk-Maxwell (1782), he served as Scottish Commissioner of Customs (1763-84). Walker was also in contact with the Englishman Sir John Hussey Delavel (1728-1808) of Ford, Northumberland. Delavel was also a keen mineralogist. See DNB.
209. (1) The aforementioned Henry Home, Lord Kames. (2) Sir David Dalrymple, (1726-92), styled 'Lord Hailes' when he was made a judge advocate for the Scottish Court of Session in 1766. (3) Francis Garden (1721-93), styled 'Lord Gardenstone' when raised to the bench in 1764.
210. The stratigraphical drawings of John (the younger) were originally supposed to be included in Hutton's Theory of the Earth. See John Clerk (ed.), James Hutton's Theory of the Earth: Reproductions of Drawings, Mostly by John Clerk of Eldin, Edinburgh, 1978.
211. The stratigraphical drawings of John (the younger) were originally supposed to be included in Hutton's Theory of the Earth. See John Clerk (ed.), James Hutton's Theory of the Earth: Reproductions of Drawings, Mostly by John Clerk of Eldin, Edinburgh, 1978.
212. Dr John Rogerson to John Clerk, 23 August 1772, National Archives of Scotland, GD 18/5121/3. The letter is dated St Petersburg. It also mentions Dr Hope and seed specimens that were collected for Catherine the Great by Professor Laxman. The connection with Pallas would eventually find fruition in 1783 when he sent Walker 129 fossils from Siberia for Edinburgh's Natural History Museum. Whithers, op. cit. (111), 70.
213. See J. H. Appleby, 'A survey of some Anglo-Russian medicinal and natural history material in British archives, from the seventeenth century to the beginning of the nineteenth century', in The Study of Russian History from British Archival Sources (ed. Janet M. Hartley), London, 1986, 107-31; A. G. Cross, 'Articus and The Bee (1790-94): an episode in Anglo-Russian cultural relations', in Oxford Slavonic Papers, New Series, Vol. II, Oxford, 1969, 62-76. L. Koerner also treats various aspects of the Baltic mineralogy in 'Daedalus Hyperboreus: Baltic natural history and mineralogy in the Enlightenment', in The Sciences in Enlightened Europe (ed. W. Clark, J. Golinski and S. Shatter), 389-422.
214. See J. H. Appleby, 'A survey of some Anglo-Russian medicinal and natural history material in British archives, from the seventeenth century to the beginning of the nineteenth century', in The Study of Russian History from British Archival Sources (ed. Janet M. Hartley), London, 1986, 107-31; A. G. Cross, 'Articus and The Bee (1790-94): an episode in Anglo-Russian cultural relations', in Oxford Slavonic Papers, New Series, Vol. II, Oxford, 1969, 62-76. L. Koerner also treats various aspects of the Baltic mineralogy in 'Daedalus Hyperboreus: Baltic natural history and mineralogy in the Enlightenment', in The Sciences in Enlightened Europe (ed. W. Clark, J. Golinski and S. Shatter), 389-422.
215. See J. H. Appleby, 'A survey of some Anglo-Russian medicinal and natural history material in British archives, from the seventeenth century to the beginning of the nineteenth century', in The Study of Russian History from British Archival Sources (ed. Janet M. Hartley), London, 1986, 107-31; A. G. Cross, 'Articus and The Bee (1790-94): an episode in Anglo-Russian cultural relations', in Oxford Slavonic Papers, New Series, Vol. II, Oxford, 1969, 62-76. L. Koerner also treats various aspects of the Baltic mineralogy in 'Daedalus Hyperboreus: Baltic natural history and mineralogy in the Enlightenment', in The Sciences in Enlightened Europe (ed. W. Clark, J. Golinski and S. Shatter), 389-422.
216. James Hutton, Abstract of a Dissertation Read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the Eleventh of March, and fourth of April, M,DCC, LXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability, Edinburgh, 1785, 8.
217. This situation becomes particularly interesting when one considers that it took some time before the new nomenclature was accepted in Edinburgh. This is treated in A. Lundgren and B. Bensaude-Vincent (eds), Communicating Chemistry : Textbooks and their Audiences, 1789-1939, Canton, MA, 2000. See A. Donovan's two articles on this context: 'Scottish responses to the new chemistry of Lavoisier', Studies in Eighteenth- Century Culture (1979), 9, 237-49;
218. This situation becomes particularly interesting when one considers that it took some time before the new nomenclature was accepted in Edinburgh. This is treated in A. Lundgren and B. Bensaude-Vincent (eds), Communicating Chemistry : Textbooks and their Audiences, 1789-1939, Canton, MA, 2000. See A. Donovan's two articles on this context: 'Scottish responses to the new chemistry of Lavoisier', Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture (1979), 9, 237-49;
219. and 'Chemistry and philosophy in the Scottish Enlightenment', Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century (1976), 152, 587-605.
220. The delayed reception of the new nomenclature in light of national contexts is treated in B. Bensaude-Vincent and F. Abbri, Lavoisier in European Context: Negotiating a New Language for Chemistry, Canton, MA, 1995.
221. In addition to Walker, the Hopetoun mines were also visited by Thomas Pennant and R. E. Raspe. See M. D. Eddy, 'James Hope Johnstone, third Earl of Hopetoun (1741-1816)', New DNB (forthcoming, 2004).
222. Waterston, op. cit. (57), 22.
223. Lord Hopetoun is also listed as a patron of the museum in a report written by Walker around 1786. EUL La.III.352/5 f. 1.
224. Shapin treats this in op. cit. (132).
225. There were over one hundred of these marble specimens, many of which are housed in the National Museum of Scotland, reference number G1993.34.
226. Walker's Kings MS, op. cit. (63), would be included in this category. See also D. M. Henderson and J. H. Dickson (eds.), A Naturalist in the Highlands. James Robertson, His Life and Travels in Scotland, 1767-1771, Edinburgh, 1994.
227. Walker's Kings MS, op. cit. (63), would be included in this category. See also D. M. Henderson and J. H. Dickson (eds.), A Naturalist in the Highlands. James Robertson, His Life and Travels in Scotland, 1767-1771, Edinburgh, 1994.
228. John Sinclair (ed.), The Statistical Account of Scotland. Drawn up from the Ministers of the Different Parishes, Vols. I-XI, Edinburgh, 1791-9. Walker made two contributions to this work. John Walker, 'Number XXVII. Parish of Colington, County of Edinburgh, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, Presbytery of Edinburgh', in A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 19, Edinburgh, 1799, 579-91; William Torrence and John Walker, 'Number XXI. Parish of Glenncross, Presbytery of Dalkeith, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, and County of Mid-Lothian', in John Sinclair, A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 15, Edinburgh, 1799, 435-46.
229. John Sinclair (ed.), The Statistical Account of Scotland. Drawn up from the Ministers of the Different Parishes, Vols. I-XI, Edinburgh, 1791-9. Walker made two contributions to this work. John Walker, 'Number XXVII. Parish of Colington, County of Edinburgh, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, Presbytery of Edinburgh', in A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 19, Edinburgh, 1799, 579-91; William Torrence and John Walker, 'Number XXI. Parish of Glenncross, Presbytery of Dalkeith, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, and County of Mid-Lothian', in John Sinclair, A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 15, Edinburgh, 1799, 435-46.
230. John Sinclair (ed.), The Statistical Account of Scotland. Drawn up from the Ministers of the Different Parishes, Vols. I-XI, Edinburgh, 1791-9. Walker made two contributions to this work. John Walker, 'Number XXVII. Parish of Colington, County of Edinburgh, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, Presbytery of Edinburgh', in A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 19, Edinburgh, 1799, 579-91; William Torrence and John Walker, 'Number XXI. Parish of Glenncross, Presbytery of Dalkeith, Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, and County of Mid-Lothian', in John Sinclair, A Statistical Account of Scotland ... Vol. 15, Edinburgh, 1799, 435-46.
231. As Walker's Adversaria indicates, F. W. P. Fabricius had travelled into the highlands. However, like many travellers, his observations were not committed to print. There are several eighteenth-century French and German travel works that address Scotland's mines and minerals, but these have not yet been treated in relation to their contribution to the history of mineralogy. Some helpful French sources from the late eighteenth century are Gabriel Jar, Voyages métallurgiques, ou, Recherches et observations sur les mines et forges de fer ... faites depuis l'année 1757 jusques & compris 1769, en Allemagne, Suéde, Norwege, Angleterre & Ecosse ..., Lyon, 1774-81; Paul Henri Mallet (ed.), Voyages aux montagnes d'Ecosse et aux isles Hébrides, de Scilly, d'Anglesey, &c. ..., Paris, 1785; Barthélémy Faujas de Saint-Fond, Voyage en Angleterre, en Ecosse et aux îles Hébrides: ayant pour objet les sciences, les arts, l'histoire naturelle et les moeurs; avec la description minéralogique du pays de Newcastle des montagnes du Derbyshire, des environs d'Edinburgh, de Glasgow, de Perth, de S.-Andrews, du duche d'Inverary et de les grotte de Fingal ..., Paris, 1797 (translated into English in 1799).
232. As Walker's Adversaria indicates, F. W. P. Fabricius had travelled into the highlands. However, like many travellers, his observations were not committed to print. There are several eighteenth-century French and German travel works that address Scotland's mines and minerals, but these have not yet been treated in relation to their contribution to the history of mineralogy. Some helpful French sources from the late eighteenth century are Gabriel Jar, Voyages métallurgiques, ou, Recherches et observations sur les mines et forges de fer ... faites depuis l'année 1757 jusques & compris 1769, en Allemagne, Suéde, Norwege, Angleterre & Ecosse ..., Lyon, 1774-81; Paul Henri Mallet (ed.), Voyages aux montagnes d'Ecosse et aux isles Hébrides, de Scilly, d'Anglesey, &c. ..., Paris, 1785; Barthélémy Faujas de Saint-Fond, Voyage en Angleterre, en Ecosse et aux îles Hébrides: ayant pour objet les sciences, les arts, l'histoire naturelle et les moeurs; avec la description minéralogique du pays de Newcastle des montagnes du Derbyshire, des environs d'Edinburgh, de Glasgow, de Perth, de S.-Andrews, du duche d'Inverary et de les grotte de Fingal ..., Paris, 1797 (translated into English in 1799).
233. As Walker's Adversaria indicates, F. W. P. Fabricius had travelled into the highlands. However, like many travellers, his observations were not committed to print. There are several eighteenth-century French and German travel works that address Scotland's mines and minerals, but these have not yet been treated in relation to their contribution to the history of mineralogy. Some helpful French sources from the late eighteenth century are Gabriel Jar, Voyages métallurgiques, ou, Recherches et observations sur les mines et forges de fer ... faites depuis l'année 1757 jusques & compris 1769, en Allemagne, Suéde, Norwege, Angleterre & Ecosse ..., Lyon, 1774-81; Paul Henri Mallet (ed.), Voyages aux montagnes d'Ecosse et aux isles Hébrides, de Scilly, d'Anglesey, &c. ..., Paris, 1785; Barthélémy Faujas de Saint-Fond, Voyage en Angleterre, en Ecosse et aux îles Hébrides: ayant pour objet les sciences, les arts, l'histoire naturelle et les moeurs; avec la description minéralogique du pays de Newcastle des montagnes du Derbyshire, des environs d'Edinburgh, de Glasgow, de Perth, de S.-Andrews, du duche d'Inverary et de les grotte de Fingal ..., Paris, 1797 (translated into English in 1799).
234. The most encompassing project being W. A. S. Sarjeant, Geologists and the History of Geology: An International Bibliography from the Origins to 1978 Vols. I-V, London, 1980.