Dangerous liaisons: The anti-fraternization movement in the U.S. occupation zones of Germany and Austria, 1945-1948

Journal of Social History

Volumn 34, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 611-647

  Biddiscombe, Perry ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041032838     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0002     Document Type: Review

References (362)

1. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
2. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
3. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
4. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
5. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
6. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
7. Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, 1978), pp. 355-62; Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), chapter 3; Christine Ball, "Women, Rape and War: Patriarchal Functions and Ideologies," Atlantis 12:1 (Fall 1986): 83-91; Cynthia Enloe, "Bananas, Bases and Patriarchy," in Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias, Women, Militarism, and War (Savage, Maryland, 1990), pp. 202-03; Jeanne Vickers, Women and War (London, 1993), chapter 2; Claudia Card, "Rape as a Weapon of War," and Liz Philipose, "The Laws of War and Women's Rights," both in Hypatia 11:4 (Fall 1996): 5-18, 46-62.
8. Gerhard Baumert, Deutsche Familien nach dem Krieg (Darmstadt, 1954), pp. 189-90. See also Michael John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," in Fritz Mayrhofer and Walter Schuster, eds., Historisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Linz 1995-Entnazifierung und Wiederaufbau in Linz (Linz, 1996), pp. 357-58.
9. Gerhard Baumert, Deutsche Familien nach dem Krieg (Darmstadt, 1954), pp. 189-90. See also Michael John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," in Fritz Mayrhofer and Walter Schuster, eds., Historisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Linz 1995-Entnazifierung und Wiederaufbau in Linz (Linz, 1996), pp. 357-58.
10. John Costello, Virtue under Fire: How World War Two Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes (Boston, 1985), pp. 258-60.
11. Mire Koikari, "Rethinking Gender and Power in the US Occupation of Japan, 1945-1952," Gender and History 11:2 (July 1999): 315.
12. For sympathetic Nazi attitudes toward the practice of having children out of wedlock, even despite the threat to much-ballyhood "family values," see Judy Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance-Women of Germany," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y., 1971), pp. 162-64; Jill Stephenson, Women in Nazi Society (London, 1975), pp. 63-70, 192; Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York, 1987), pp. 197, 290, 398-400, 402, 408; and Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 237-38.
13. For sympathetic Nazi attitudes toward the practice of having children out of wedlock, even despite the threat to much-ballyhood "family values," see Judy Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance-Women of Germany," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y., 1971), pp. 162-64; Jill Stephenson, Women in Nazi Society (London, 1975), pp. 63-70, 192; Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York, 1987), pp. 197, 290, 398-400, 402, 408; and Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 237-38.
14. For sympathetic Nazi attitudes toward the practice of having children out of wedlock, even despite the threat to much-ballyhood "family values," see Judy Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance-Women of Germany," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y., 1971), pp. 162-64; Jill Stephenson, Women in Nazi Society (London, 1975), pp. 63-70, 192; Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York, 1987), pp. 197, 290, 398-400, 402, 408; and Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 237-38.
15. For sympathetic Nazi attitudes toward the practice of having children out of wedlock, even despite the threat to much-ballyhood "family values," see Judy Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance-Women of Germany," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y., 1971), pp. 162-64; Jill Stephenson, Women in Nazi Society (London, 1975), pp. 63-70, 192; Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics (New York, 1987), pp. 197, 290, 398-400, 402, 408; and Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 237-38.
16. Klaus-Jörg Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre: Frauenalltag in Kriegs- und Nachkriegszeit 1939-1949 in Berichten, Dokumenten und Bildern (Darmstadt, 1985), p. 152.
17. The Stars and Stripes (Marseilles ed.), 17 January 1945; and Hilde Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien (Berlin, 1948), p. 197. "Moral standards" deteriorated in Britain and the United States as well. See Costello, Virtue under Fire, chapter 12.
18. The Stars and Stripes (Marseilles ed.), 17 January 1945; and Hilde Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien (Berlin, 1948), p. 197. "Moral standards" deteriorated in Britain and the United States as well. See Costello, Virtue under Fire, chapter 12.
19. The Stars and Stripes (Marseilles ed.), 17 January 1945; and Hilde Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien (Berlin, 1948), p. 197. "Moral standards" deteriorated in Britain and the United States as well. See Costello, Virtue under Fire, chapter 12.
20. Jill Stephenson, "'Emancipation' and its Problems: War and Society in Württemberg 1939-45," European History Quarterly 17 (July 1987): 356.
21. Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945.
22. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
23. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
24. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
25. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
26. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
27. David Rodnik, Postwar Germans: An Anthropologist's Account (New Haven, 1948), pp. 105-06. See also Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 97, 150, 197-99, 201; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, chapter v; Barden, "Candy-Bar Romance," pp. 170-71; and Robert Moeller, Protecting Motherhood (Berkeley, 1993), pp. 11-12. For an overview of veterans' problems during this period, see Arthur Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die Entlassung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen (Stuttgart, 1985), chapter v.
28. James Diehl, The Thanks of the Fatherland (Chapel Hill, 1993), p. 70; and Robert Moeller, "War Stories," The American Historical Review 101:4 (October 1996): 1037. See the particularly illustrative letter-to-a-friend published by Manfred Hausmann in Die Neue Zeitung, 3 December 1945.
29. James Diehl, The Thanks of the Fatherland (Chapel Hill, 1993), p. 70; and Robert Moeller, "War Stories," The American Historical Review 101:4 (October 1996): 1037. See the particularly illustrative letter-to-a-friend published by Manfred Hausmann in Die Neue Zeitung, 3 December 1945.
30. James Diehl, The Thanks of the Fatherland (Chapel Hill, 1993), p. 70; and Robert Moeller, "War Stories," The American Historical Review 101:4 (October 1996): 1037. See the particularly illustrative letter-to-a-friend published by Manfred Hausmann in Die Neue Zeitung, 3 December 1945.
31. Weser Kurier, 13 October 1945. See also The New York Times, 23 August 1945.
32. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 262-63; Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 196-97, 201-08, 211-12; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, pp. 31-35; Weser Kurier, 4 December 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945; 18 January 1946; and 21 January 1946.
33. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 262-63; Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 196-97, 201-08, 211-12; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, pp. 31-35; Weser Kurier, 4 December 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945; 18 January 1946; and 21 January 1946.
34. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 262-63; Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 196-97, 201-08, 211-12; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, pp. 31-35; Weser Kurier, 4 December 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945; 18 January 1946; and 21 January 1946.
35. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 262-63; Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 196-97, 201-08, 211-12; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, pp. 31-35; Weser Kurier, 4 December 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945; 18 January 1946; and 21 January 1946.
36. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 262-63; Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 196-97, 201-08, 211-12; Baumert, Deutsche Familien, pp. 31-35; Weser Kurier, 4 December 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 21 October 1945; 18 January 1946; and 21 January 1946.
37. Die Neue Zeitung, 11 March 1946; 8 April 1946; and Weser Kurier, 3 August 1946.
38. Die Neue Zeitung, 11 March 1946; 8 April 1946; and Weser Kurier, 3 August 1946.
39. For the replacement of women in the Post Office and the Reichsbahn with returning POWs, see Die Neue Zeitung, 8 November 1945; and Weser Kurier, 19 June 1946.
40. For the replacement of women in the Post Office and the Reichsbahn with returning POWs, see Die Neue Zeitung, 8 November 1945; and Weser Kurier, 19 June 1946.
41. Neue Zeit, 21 October 1945.
42. For the essence of this argument, see Weser Kurier, 3 August 1946; and Der Tagesspiegel, 27 December 1945.
43. For the essence of this argument, see Weser Kurier, 3 August 1946; and Der Tagesspiegel, 27 December 1945.
44. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 139.
45. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 10 May 1946; 15 July 1946; 9 August 1946; 18 November 1946; 23 December 1946; Der Tagesspiegel, 27 January 1946; Weser Kurier, 6 October 1945; 5 January 1946; 12 January 1946; 30 January 1946; 3 August 1946; 7 September 1946; 16 November 1946; 7 December 1946; and 25 April 1947.
46. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 10 May 1946; 15 July 1946; 9 August 1946; 18 November 1946; 23 December 1946; Der Tagesspiegel, 27 January 1946; Weser Kurier, 6 October 1945; 5 January 1946; 12 January 1946; 30 January 1946; 3 August 1946; 7 September 1946; 16 November 1946; 7 December 1946; and 25 April 1947.
47. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 10 May 1946; 15 July 1946; 9 August 1946; 18 November 1946; 23 December 1946; Der Tagesspiegel, 27 January 1946; Weser Kurier, 6 October 1945; 5 January 1946; 12 January 1946; 30 January 1946; 3 August 1946; 7 September 1946; 16 November 1946; 7 December 1946; and 25 April 1947.
48. Gabriele Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug: Frauen 1945-1950 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1981), pp. 57-58; Der Tagesspiegel, 30 January 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 18 November 1945; 24 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 23 January 1946; 2 February 1946; 16 March 1946; and 4 May 1946.
49. Gabriele Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug: Frauen 1945-1950 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1981), pp. 57-58; Der Tagesspiegel, 30 January 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 18 November 1945; 24 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 23 January 1946; 2 February 1946; 16 March 1946; and 4 May 1946.
50. Gabriele Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug: Frauen 1945-1950 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1981), pp. 57-58; Der Tagesspiegel, 30 January 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 18 November 1945; 24 December 1945; 1 March 1946; 23 January 1946; 2 February 1946; 16 March 1946; and 4 May 1946.
51. Weser Kurier, 6 February 1946; 20 March 1946; 6 April 1946; 8 May 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 16 May 1947
52. Weser Kurier, 6 February 1946; 20 March 1946; 6 April 1946; 8 May 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 16 May 1947
53. Die Neue Zeitung, 23 May 1947. For an opinion poll confirming this conclusion, see Weser Kurier, 12 January 1946. See also Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, pp. 12-13.
54. Die Neue Zeitung, 23 May 1947. For an opinion poll confirming this conclusion, see Weser Kurier, 12 January 1946. See also Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, pp. 12-13.
55. Die Neue Zeitung, 23 May 1947. For an opinion poll confirming this conclusion, see Weser Kurier, 12 January 1946. See also Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, pp. 12-13.
56. Der Tagesspiegel, 25 October 1945.
57. Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug, pp. 16, 55-56. Anna Stiegler, a Bremen SPD leader and one of the founders of the local Frauenauschuss, noted: "Without the active influence of the female spirit and motherhood, this world can never arise; otherwise it would be robbed of its best meaning, its deepest essence." Munich University economist Grete Lenz-Oevel noted, in a similarly millenarian vein, that "we women must stand in the first rank if the last chance to defend our civilization is to count for anything." Weser Kurier, 7 September 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 15 July 1946.
58. Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug, pp. 16, 55-56. Anna Stiegler, a Bremen SPD leader and one of the founders of the local Frauenauschuss, noted: "Without the active influence of the female spirit and motherhood, this world can never arise; otherwise it would be robbed of its best meaning, its deepest essence." Munich University economist Grete Lenz-Oevel noted, in a similarly millenarian vein, that "we women must stand in the first rank if the last chance to defend our civilization is to count for anything." Weser Kurier, 7 September 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 15 July 1946.
59. Strecker, Überleben ist nicht genug, pp. 16, 55-56. Anna Stiegler, a Bremen SPD leader and one of the founders of the local Frauenauschuss, noted: "Without the active influence of the female spirit and motherhood, this world can never arise; otherwise it would be robbed of its best meaning, its deepest essence." Munich University economist Grete Lenz-Oevel noted, in a similarly millenarian vein, that "we women must stand in the first rank if the last chance to defend our civilization is to count for anything." Weser Kurier, 7 September 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 15 July 1946.
60. Die Neue Zeitung, 10 December 1945. For an outraged response to this accusation, see Die Neue Zeitung, 18 January 1946.
61. Heike Sender and Barbara Johr, eds., Befreier und Befreite: Krieg, Varwaltigungen, Kinder (Munich, 1992); Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), chapter 2; and Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in Robert Moeller, ed., West Germany under Construction (Ann Arbor, 1997), pp. 33-52.
62. Heike Sender and Barbara Johr, eds., Befreier und Befreite: Krieg, Varwaltigungen, Kinder (Munich, 1992); Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), chapter 2; and Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in Robert Moeller, ed., West Germany under Construction (Ann Arbor, 1997), pp. 33-52.
63. Heike Sender and Barbara Johr, eds., Befreier und Befreite: Krieg, Varwaltigungen, Kinder (Munich, 1992); Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), chapter 2; and Atina Grossmann, "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers," in Robert Moeller, ed., West Germany under Construction (Ann Arbor, 1997), pp. 33-52.
64. Edward Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat: The German People's Experience in 1945 (New York, 1990), pp. 40-47, 79, 81, 128, 130-32, 138. By April 1945, 500 rape cases per week were being reported to the Judge Advocate General of American forces in Europe. "Report of the Threatre Judge Advocate for the period 4 April 1942 to 3 April 1946," appendix iv-e, Papers of the Allied High Command, 1943/45, Reel no. 7. As for the French, there were 385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt. Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945-49 (Saint-Armand-Montrand, 1983), pp. 84, 108-111; Manfred Bosch, Der Neubeginn: Aus deutscher Nachkriegszeit Südbaden 1945-1950 (Konstanz, 1988), p. 34; and Hermann Werner, Tübingen 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 88.
65. Edward Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat: The German People's Experience in 1945 (New York, 1990), pp. 40-47, 79, 81, 128, 130-32, 138. By April 1945, 500 rape cases per week were being reported to the Judge Advocate General of American forces in Europe. "Report of the Threatre Judge Advocate for the period 4 April 1942 to 3 April 1946," appendix iv-e, Papers of the Allied High Command, 1943/45, Reel no. 7. As for the French, there were 385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt. Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945-49 (Saint-Armand-Montrand, 1983), pp. 84, 108-111; Manfred Bosch, Der Neubeginn: Aus deutscher Nachkriegszeit Südbaden 1945-1950 (Konstanz, 1988), p. 34; and Hermann Werner, Tübingen 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 88.
66. Edward Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat: The German People's Experience in 1945 (New York, 1990), pp. 40-47, 79, 81, 128, 130-32, 138. By April 1945, 500 rape cases per week were being reported to the Judge Advocate General of American forces in Europe. "Report of the Threatre Judge Advocate for the period 4 April 1942 to 3 April 1946," appendix iv-e, Papers of the Allied High Command, 1943/45, Reel no. 7. As for the French, there were 385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt. Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945-49 (Saint-Armand-Montrand, 1983), pp. 84, 108-111; Manfred Bosch, Der Neubeginn: Aus deutscher Nachkriegszeit Südbaden 1945-1950 (Konstanz, 1988), p. 34; and Hermann Werner, Tübingen 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 88.
67. Edward Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat: The German People's Experience in 1945 (New York, 1990), pp. 40-47, 79, 81, 128, 130-32, 138. By April 1945, 500 rape cases per week were being reported to the Judge Advocate General of American forces in Europe. "Report of the Threatre Judge Advocate for the period 4 April 1942 to 3 April 1946," appendix iv-e, Papers of the Allied High Command, 1943/45, Reel no. 7. As for the French, there were 385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt. Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945-49 (Saint-Armand-Montrand, 1983), pp. 84, 108-111; Manfred Bosch, Der Neubeginn: Aus deutscher Nachkriegszeit Südbaden 1945-1950 (Konstanz, 1988), p. 34; and Hermann Werner, Tübingen 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 88.
68. Edward Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat: The German People's Experience in 1945 (New York, 1990), pp. 40-47, 79, 81, 128, 130-32, 138. By April 1945, 500 rape cases per week were being reported to the Judge Advocate General of American forces in Europe. "Report of the Threatre Judge Advocate for the period 4 April 1942 to 3 April 1946," appendix iv-e, Papers of the Allied High Command, 1943/45, Reel no. 7. As for the French, there were 385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt. Marc Hillel, L'Occupation Française en Allemagne, 1945-49 (Saint-Armand-Montrand, 1983), pp. 84, 108-111; Manfred Bosch, Der Neubeginn: Aus deutscher Nachkriegszeit Südbaden 1945-1950 (Konstanz, 1988), p. 34; and Hermann Werner, Tübingen 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 88.
69. Bundesarchiv-Lastenausgleichsarchiv, Bayreuth, Ost Dok. 2/21, Ruth Zollner, untitled report, 25 June 1951.
70. Perry Biddiscombe, Werwolf! The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944-1946 (Toronto, 1998), pp. 269-70. In at least one case, German women discouraged a would-be defender in order to avoid the collective reprisals sure to follow any loss of blood by Red Army soldiers. During a Soviet raid on the Breslau suburb of Elfenhagen, which typically degenerated into a binge of rape and pillage, an outraged German civilian was barely prevented from tossing a hand grenade at Soviet troops. At the last moment, local women convinced him that such an attack would result in retaliations causing the death of every inhabitant of the village. Karl Friedrich Grau, ed., Silesian Inferno: War Crimes of the Red Army on its March into Silesia in 1945 - A Collection of Documents (Cologne, 1970), p. 72.
71. Perry Biddiscombe, Werwolf! The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944-1946 (Toronto, 1998), pp. 269-70. In at least one case, German women discouraged a would-be defender in order to avoid the collective reprisals sure to follow any loss of blood by Red Army soldiers. During a Soviet raid on the Breslau suburb of Elfenhagen, which typically degenerated into a binge of rape and pillage, an outraged German civilian was barely prevented from tossing a hand grenade at Soviet troops. At the last moment, local women convinced him that such an attack would result in retaliations causing the death of every inhabitant of the village. Karl Friedrich Grau, ed., Silesian Inferno: War Crimes of the Red Army on its March into Silesia in 1945 - A Collection of Documents (Cologne, 1970), p. 72.
72. Ernst Jünger, Tagebücher III: Strahlungen-Zweiter Teil (Stuttgart, 1960), p. 425; and Saul Padover, Experiment in Germany (New York, 1946), p. 379.
73. Ernst Jünger, Tagebücher III: Strahlungen-Zweiter Teil (Stuttgart, 1960), p. 425; and Saul Padover, Experiment in Germany (New York, 1946), p. 379.
74. Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, pp. 24-25.
75. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 339.
76. Thurnwald notes that some of the young women in Berlin who slipped into a lifestyle of "sexuelle Verwilderung" had earlier been raped. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 146.
77. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 352.
78. John Gimbel, The American Occupation of Germany: Politics and the Military, 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968), pp. 35, 54-55.
79. The New York Times, 25 June 1945.
80. Note the comments of Staff Sergeant Mario Salvatore: "Go with a girl and have your fun, but don't marry. I can't see marriage when my buddies have been killed by brothers and boyfriends of the girls GIs would marry." Rainbow Reveille, 2 February 1946.
81. Enloe, cited in Ball, "Women, Rape and War," 86. Enloe's comment refers specifically to South Vietnam, but the situation there, vis-a-vis female camp followers, was similar to that in immediate postwar Germany.
82. The Stars and Stripes published an article on 8 April 1946 titled "Pregnant Frauleins Are Warned!" The U.S. Army, it explained, was not responsible for the sexual relationships of its personnel: Girls who are expecting a child fathered by an American soldier will be provided with no assistance by the American Army ... If the soldier denies paternity, no further action will be undertaken other than to merely inform the woman of this fact. She is to be advised to seek help from a German or Austrian welfare organization. If the soldier is already in the United States, his address in not to be communicated to the woman in question, the soldier may be honorably discharged from the army and his demobilization will in no way be delayed. Claims for child support from unmarried German and Austrian mothers will not be recognized. If the soldier voluntarily acknowledges paternity, he is to provide for the woman in an appropriate manner. Cases of disputed paternity involving Americans were not within the jurisdiction of German and Austrian courts, and during the intitial stages of the occupation, the U.S. Army would not allow an American to make support payments to a German or Austrian woman even if he admitted being the father of their child. Such allotments were considered aid to the enemy. See Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, War Brides of World War Two (Novato, CA, 1988), pp. 132-33; John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 352; and Robert Haeger, "No More Conquerors," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y. 1971), p. 14.
83. The Stars and Stripes published an article on 8 April 1946 titled "Pregnant Frauleins Are Warned!" The U.S. Army, it explained, was not responsible for the sexual relationships of its personnel: Girls who are expecting a child fathered by an American soldier will be provided with no assistance by the American Army ... If the soldier denies paternity, no further action will be undertaken other than to merely inform the woman of this fact. She is to be advised to seek help from a German or Austrian welfare organization. If the soldier is already in the United States, his address in not to be communicated to the woman in question, the soldier may be honorably discharged from the army and his demobilization will in no way be delayed. Claims for child support from unmarried German and Austrian mothers will not be recognized. If the soldier voluntarily acknowledges paternity, he is to provide for the woman in an appropriate manner. Cases of disputed paternity involving Americans were not within the jurisdiction of German and Austrian courts, and during the intitial stages of the occupation, the U.S. Army would not allow an American to make support payments to a German or Austrian woman even if he admitted being the father of their child. Such allotments were considered aid to the enemy. See Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, War Brides of World War Two (Novato, CA, 1988), pp. 132-33; John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 352; and Robert Haeger, "No More Conquerors," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y. 1971), p. 14.
84. The Stars and Stripes published an article on 8 April 1946 titled "Pregnant Frauleins Are Warned!" The U.S. Army, it explained, was not responsible for the sexual relationships of its personnel: Girls who are expecting a child fathered by an American soldier will be provided with no assistance by the American Army ... If the soldier denies paternity, no further action will be undertaken other than to merely inform the woman of this fact. She is to be advised to seek help from a German or Austrian welfare organization. If the soldier is already in the United States, his address in not to be communicated to the woman in question, the soldier may be honorably discharged from the army and his demobilization will in no way be delayed. Claims for child support from unmarried German and Austrian mothers will not be recognized. If the soldier voluntarily acknowledges paternity, he is to provide for the woman in an appropriate manner. Cases of disputed paternity involving Americans were not within the jurisdiction of German and Austrian courts, and during the intitial stages of the occupation, the U.S. Army would not allow an American to make support payments to a German or Austrian woman even if he admitted being the father of their child. Such allotments were considered aid to the enemy. See Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, War Brides of World War Two (Novato, CA, 1988), pp. 132-33; John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 352; and Robert Haeger, "No More Conquerors," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y. 1971), p. 14.
85. The Stars and Stripes published an article on 8 April 1946 titled "Pregnant Frauleins Are Warned!" The U.S. Army, it explained, was not responsible for the sexual relationships of its personnel: Girls who are expecting a child fathered by an American soldier will be provided with no assistance by the American Army ... If the soldier denies paternity, no further action will be undertaken other than to merely inform the woman of this fact. She is to be advised to seek help from a German or Austrian welfare organization. If the soldier is already in the United States, his address in not to be communicated to the woman in question, the soldier may be honorably discharged from the army and his demobilization will in no way be delayed. Claims for child support from unmarried German and Austrian mothers will not be recognized. If the soldier voluntarily acknowledges paternity, he is to provide for the woman in an appropriate manner. Cases of disputed paternity involving Americans were not within the jurisdiction of German and Austrian courts, and during the intitial stages of the occupation, the U.S. Army would not allow an American to make support payments to a German or Austrian woman even if he admitted being the father of their child. Such allotments were considered aid to the enemy. See Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, War Brides of World War Two (Novato, CA, 1988), pp. 132-33; John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 352; and Robert Haeger, "No More Conquerors," in Arthur Settel, ed., This Is Germany (Freeport, N.Y. 1971), p. 14.
86. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 133, 139-44; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 358. In August 1946, the U.S. Congress did pass a law allowing demobilized American soldiers to apply for a "marriage visa" for their German sweethearts if the latter could clear a security check and pay for passage to the United States. The first couple married under these provisions was joined together in November 1946. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 May 1946; 12 August 1946; and 14 October 1946.
87. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 133, 139-44; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 358. In August 1946, the U.S. Congress did pass a law allowing demobilized American soldiers to apply for a "marriage visa" for their German sweethearts if the latter could clear a security check and pay for passage to the United States. The first couple married under these provisions was joined together in November 1946. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 May 1946; 12 August 1946; and 14 October 1946.
88. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 133, 139-44; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 358. In August 1946, the U.S. Congress did pass a law allowing demobilized American soldiers to apply for a "marriage visa" for their German sweethearts if the latter could clear a security check and pay for passage to the United States. The first couple married under these provisions was joined together in November 1946. Die Neue Zeitung, 31 May 1946; 12 August 1946; and 14 October 1946.
89. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 150; and Grace Halsell, Black/White Sex (New York, 1972), pp. 159-60.
90. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 150; and Grace Halsell, Black/White Sex (New York, 1972), pp. 159-60.
91. The New York Times, 14 July 1945, vi.
92. U.S. National Archives, Washington (NA) Record Group (RG) 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Altaffer to the Secretary of State, 11 August 1947; and Harold Zink, The United States in Germany, 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957), pp. 140-41.
93. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 23, 15 December 1945. The U.S. Seventh Army reported that the hesitancy of American soldiers to fraternize with young German males was undercutting Military Government efforts to sponser youth training. See also John Gimbel, A German Community under American Occupation: Marburg, 1945-52 (Stanford, 1961), p. 50.
94. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 23, 15 December 1945. The U.S. Seventh Army reported that the hesitancy of American soldiers to fraternize with young German males was undercutting Military Government efforts to sponser youth training. See also John Gimbel, A German Community under American Occupation: Marburg, 1945-52 (Stanford, 1961), p. 50.
95. The New York Times, 27 January 1946.
96. Public Records Office, London (PRO) Foreign Office (FO) 371/55658, K. Steele to J. Troutbeck, 14 February 1946. This assessment is confirmed by a U.S. Third Army report from the autumn of 1945. It noted the development of "a widespread feeling that Americans lack interest in the future of Germany ... aggravated undoubtedly by the freely expressed desire of many occupation troops to go home ..." NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 18, 15 November 1945.
97. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 25, 30 November 1946; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 132, 137.
98. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 25, 30 November 1946; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 132, 137.
99. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 146.
100. Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946.
101. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945. See also Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-30. For a less sympathetic view of the role of laundry in establishing relationships, see Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 146.
102. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945. See also Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-30. For a less sympathetic view of the role of laundry in establishing relationships, see Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 146.
103. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945. See also Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-30. For a less sympathetic view of the role of laundry in establishing relationships, see Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 146.
104. Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946. There was a minor scandal in 1946 when a number of soldiers who had based their romantic escapades upon "VD free" certificates nonetheless wound up in U.S. field hospitals with sexually-transmitted diseases. At least one physician in the Stuttgart area was arrested for falsly issuing certificates, and U.S. authorities warned that "deliberate" infection of U.S. soldiers amounted to sabotage, an interpretation that implied stiff penalties for the women involved. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 61, 12 September 1946; and no. 71, 21 November 1946.
105. Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946. There was a minor scandal in 1946 when a number of soldiers who had based their romantic escapades upon "VD free" certificates nonetheless wound up in U.S. field hospitals with sexually-transmitted diseases. At least one physician in the Stuttgart area was arrested for falsly issuing certificates, and U.S. authorities warned that "deliberate" infection of U.S. soldiers amounted to sabotage, an interpretation that implied stiff penalties for the women involved. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 61, 12 September 1946; and no. 71, 21 November 1946.
106. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 136.
107. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
108. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
109. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
110. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
111. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
112. Der Tagesspiegel, 27 September 1945; Neue Zeit, 13 October 1945; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 129-31; "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/ salzburg/5030.htm, as of 13 December 1996; Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 106; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, pp. 149-50.
113. PRO FO 371/64350, 250 British Liaison Mission Report no. 7, April 1947; PRO FO 371/64351, Livingston to Bevin, 25 July 1947, Enclosure no. 1; NA RG 260 OMGUS ODI Miscellaneous Reports, GMZFO Direction de la Sûreté "Bulletin de Renseignements" no. 55, 15 July 1948, chapter vi; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 340, 353. For the activity of small groups in the French zone devoted to ending fraternization, see Die Neue Zeitung, 29 July 1946; and PRO FO 371/64352, ACC Report for the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers Meeting, 1947, section ii, "Denazification," part 9, "French Zone."
114. PRO FO 371/64350, 250 British Liaison Mission Report no. 7, April 1947; PRO FO 371/64351, Livingston to Bevin, 25 July 1947, Enclosure no. 1; NA RG 260 OMGUS ODI Miscellaneous Reports, GMZFO Direction de la Sûreté "Bulletin de Renseignements" no. 55, 15 July 1948, chapter vi; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 340, 353. For the activity of small groups in the French zone devoted to ending fraternization, see Die Neue Zeitung, 29 July 1946; and PRO FO 371/64352, ACC Report for the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers Meeting, 1947, section ii, "Denazification," part 9, "French Zone."
115. PRO FO 371/64350, 250 British Liaison Mission Report no. 7, April 1947; PRO FO 371/64351, Livingston to Bevin, 25 July 1947, Enclosure no. 1; NA RG 260 OMGUS ODI Miscellaneous Reports, GMZFO Direction de la Sûreté "Bulletin de Renseignements" no. 55, 15 July 1948, chapter vi; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 340, 353. For the activity of small groups in the French zone devoted to ending fraternization, see Die Neue Zeitung, 29 July 1946; and PRO FO 371/64352, ACC Report for the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers Meeting, 1947, section ii, "Denazification," part 9, "French Zone."
116. PRO FO 371/64350, 250 British Liaison Mission Report no. 7, April 1947; PRO FO 371/64351, Livingston to Bevin, 25 July 1947, Enclosure no. 1; NA RG 260 OMGUS ODI Miscellaneous Reports, GMZFO Direction de la Sûreté "Bulletin de Renseignements" no. 55, 15 July 1948, chapter vi; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 340, 353. For the activity of small groups in the French zone devoted to ending fraternization, see Die Neue Zeitung, 29 July 1946; and PRO FO 371/64352, ACC Report for the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers Meeting, 1947, section ii, "Denazification," part 9, "French Zone."
117. PRO FO 371/64350, 250 British Liaison Mission Report no. 7, April 1947; PRO FO 371/64351, Livingston to Bevin, 25 July 1947, Enclosure no. 1; NA RG 260 OMGUS ODI Miscellaneous Reports, GMZFO Direction de la Sûreté "Bulletin de Renseignements" no. 55, 15 July 1948, chapter vi; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 340, 353. For the activity of small groups in the French zone devoted to ending fraternization, see Die Neue Zeitung, 29 July 1946; and PRO FO 371/64352, ACC Report for the Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers Meeting, 1947, section ii, "Denazification," part 9, "French Zone."
118. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
119. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
120. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
121. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
122. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
123. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division
124. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
125. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
126. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
127. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
128. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
129. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
130. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
131. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; The Washington Post, 22 July 1945; Weser-Kurier, 6 November 1946; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 14, 7 June 1946; PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 7, 15 October 1946; no. 12, 31 December 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and Stephen Spender, European Witness (New York, 1946), p. 170. For chalk sloganeering and placarding aimed at intimidating women in the British zone, see PRO FO 371/46934, 21st AG "Weekly Political Intelligence Summary" no. 6, 11 August 1945; PRO FO 1005/1701, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 8, 13 March 1946; and PRO FO 1005/1702, CCG(BE) "Intelligence Division Summary" no. 8, 30 October 1946. For the British, by far the worst affected areas were the southern Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Styria, where threats and head-shearing were a daily reality of life in 1945/46. "Scherenklubs" (scissors clubs), such as the "Watchful Barber," were active at Rennwig, St. Andrä, Kotschah, Löben, Ferlach and Neuberg, as was a major placardingcum-sabotage organization in Klagenfurt. The latter group was broken up by the British in December 1945, and its leader, an anti-British activist named Leiste, was arrested. PRO FO 371/46612, GSI British Troops Austria "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 7, part ii, 17 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/299, 5th Corps "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 2 August 1945; PRO FO 1007/300, ACA(BE) CMF "Joint Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 19, 17 November 1945; no. 21, 1 December 1945; no. 24, 22 December 1945; no. 27, 19 January 1946; and no. 28, 26 January 1946; PRO FO 1007/301, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Joint Fortnightly Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 6 April 1946; and no. 6, 4 May 1946.
132. While the French formally adhered to the nonfraternization policy common to all the occupying powers, they felt that it would be impossible to impose owing to "French naturalism," and they rarely levied fines to enforce it. As a result, fraternization developed more naturally in the French zone. A German journalist familiar with the situation in the zone noted in 1947: Fraternization of the Anglo-American brand does not exist. The 'Fraulein-poilu liaison' is not so much a public affair as the GI-Fraulein romance; moreover, it is not based on candies and cigarettes. The Frenchman and the German girl do not meet in the streets and they never had to since a fraternization ban had never been decreed. Frenchmen marry Germans without much publicity. The French common-sense whereever relations between the sexes are concerned prevented them from making fools of themselves. Another female correspondent pointed out that many French soldiers had brought their families to Germany, and that they lived with German families and enjoyed many close friendships, although the French were not particularly sympathetic to German young people. A woman from Vossenack, in the southern Rhineland, noted that while contact with French soldiers was permitted, efforts to get food were pointless. Hillel, L'Occupation Française, pp. 105-06, 112-18; Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat, p. 134; The Washington Post, 4 June 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 23 June 1947; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Altaffer to the Secretary of State, 11 August 1947.
133. While the French formally adhered to the nonfraternization policy common to all the occupying powers, they felt that it would be impossible to impose owing to "French naturalism," and they rarely levied fines to enforce it. As a result, fraternization developed more naturally in the French zone. A German journalist familiar with the situation in the zone noted in 1947: Fraternization of the Anglo-American brand does not exist. The 'Fraulein-poilu liaison' is not so much a public affair as the GI-Fraulein romance; moreover, it is not based on candies and cigarettes. The Frenchman and the German girl do not meet in the streets and they never had to since a fraternization ban had never been decreed. Frenchmen marry Germans without much publicity. The French common-sense whereever relations between the sexes are concerned prevented them from making fools of themselves. Another female correspondent pointed out that many French soldiers had brought their families to Germany, and that they lived with German families and enjoyed many close friendships, although the French were not particularly sympathetic to German young people. A woman from Vossenack, in the southern Rhineland, noted that while contact with French soldiers was permitted, efforts to get food were pointless. Hillel, L'Occupation Française, pp. 105-06, 112-18; Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat, p. 134; The Washington Post, 4 June 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 23 June 1947; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Altaffer to the Secretary of State, 11 August 1947.
134. While the French formally adhered to the nonfraternization policy common to all the occupying powers, they felt that it would be impossible to impose owing to "French naturalism," and they rarely levied fines to enforce it. As a result, fraternization developed more naturally in the French zone. A German journalist familiar with the situation in the zone noted in 1947: Fraternization of the Anglo-American brand does not exist. The 'Fraulein-poilu liaison' is not so much a public affair as the GI-Fraulein romance; moreover, it is not based on candies and cigarettes. The Frenchman and the German girl do not meet in the streets and they never had to since a fraternization ban had never been decreed. Frenchmen marry Germans without much publicity. The French common-sense whereever relations between the sexes are concerned prevented them from making fools of themselves. Another female correspondent pointed out that many French soldiers had brought their families to Germany, and that they lived with German families and enjoyed many close friendships, although the French were not particularly sympathetic to German young people. A woman from Vossenack, in the southern Rhineland, noted that while contact with French soldiers was permitted, efforts to get food were pointless. Hillel, L'Occupation Française, pp. 105-06, 112-18; Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat, p. 134; The Washington Post, 4 June 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 23 June 1947; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Altaffer to the Secretary of State, 11 August 1947.
135. While the French formally adhered to the nonfraternization policy common to all the occupying powers, they felt that it would be impossible to impose owing to "French naturalism," and they rarely levied fines to enforce it. As a result, fraternization developed more naturally in the French zone. A German journalist familiar with the situation in the zone noted in 1947: Fraternization of the Anglo-American brand does not exist. The 'Fraulein-poilu liaison' is not so much a public affair as the GI-Fraulein romance; moreover, it is not based on candies and cigarettes. The Frenchman and the German girl do not meet in the streets and they never had to since a fraternization ban had never been decreed. Frenchmen marry Germans without much publicity. The French common-sense whereever relations between the sexes are concerned prevented them from making fools of themselves. Another female correspondent pointed out that many French soldiers had brought their families to Germany, and that they lived with German families and enjoyed many close friendships, although the French were not particularly sympathetic to German young people. A woman from Vossenack, in the southern Rhineland, noted that while contact with French soldiers was permitted, efforts to get food were pointless. Hillel, L'Occupation Française, pp. 105-06, 112-18; Peterson, The Many Faces of Defeat, p. 134; The Washington Post, 4 June 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 23 June 1947; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Altaffer to the Secretary of State, 11 August 1947.
136. A leaflet circulated in Weiler around the turn of 1945/46, and addressed to "comrades" (meaning former soldiers), provides a good indication of German attitudes vis-a-vis the French. The authors of this pamphlet scored women associating with the enemy and said that such 'harlots' should be ostracized. As for more heavy-handed measures, they warned that anything directly involving the French could "have disasterous consequences for the entire population." More significant yet, Frenchmen were not to be blamed for the situation: "They are not guilty for these things. We can't complain about that. And, though we have fought against them on the battlefield, they did their duty, just as we did." In other words, anti-fraternization in the French zone was a domestic affair, not an issue between honourable soldiers. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 31, 14 February 1946.
137. PRO War Office (WO) 205/1078, HQ Berlin Area "Intelligence Summary" no. 2, 13 July 1945.
138. The Manchester Guardian, 4 June 1945.
139. See, for instance, Ein Tagebuch aus Pommern 1945-1946: Aufzeichnungen von Käthe von Normann (Bonn, 1955), p. 59.
140. Naimark, The Russians in Germany, pp. 92-93, 107, 133-34, 498.
141. The Stars and Stripes (Rhine-Main ed.), 1 Feb. 1947.
142. Nazi anti-fraternization propaganda material was captured by the advancing Americans, but most of it was never released due to the rapidity of the Allied and Soviet advance. NA, History of the Counter Intelligence Corps (Baltimore, 1959), xx, pp. 57-58. Nazi propaganda did mention, with much sympathy, manifestations of anti-fraternization sentiment in Allied-occupied Italy. See Völkischer Beobachter, 24 February 1945.
143. Nazi anti-fraternization propaganda material was captured by the advancing Americans, but most of it was never released due to the rapidity of the Allied and Soviet advance. NA, History of the Counter Intelligence Corps (Baltimore, 1959), xx, pp. 57-58. Nazi propaganda did mention, with much sympathy, manifestations of anti-fraternization sentiment in Allied-occupied Italy. See Völkischer Beobachter, 24 February 1945.
144. A few examples: in mid-April, a farmer's wife was executed by counterattacking German troops in northern Württemberg because she had been too friendly to American soldiers; in early May, a Hitler Youth in Passau shot a girl in the backside when he spotted her in flagrante delicto with a U.S. soldier; during the same period, a women was arrested by retreating German troops in Tamweg (Austria) after she had helped an American POW who had stumbled while being forced marched through her town; and during the same month, Werewolves in southern Baden killed a women who was seen dating a French NCO. Friedrich Blumenstock, Der Einmarsch der Amerikaner und Französen in Nordlichen Württemberg im April 1945 (Stuttgart, 1957), p. 32; Peter Seewald, "Gruss Gott, ihr seid frei," in Wolfgang Malinowski, ed. 1945: Deutschland in der Stunde Null (Hamburg, 1985), p. 105; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 125-26; and Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Paris, 7P 125, "Maquis Allemands."
145. A few examples: in mid-April, a farmer's wife was executed by counterattacking German troops in northern Württemberg because she had been too friendly to American soldiers; in early May, a Hitler Youth in Passau shot a girl in the backside when he spotted her in flagrante delicto with a U.S. soldier; during the same period, a women was arrested by retreating German troops in Tamweg (Austria) after she had helped an American POW who had stumbled while being forced marched through her town; and during the same month, Werewolves in southern Baden killed a women who was seen dating a French NCO. Friedrich Blumenstock, Der Einmarsch der Amerikaner und Französen in Nordlichen Württemberg im April 1945 (Stuttgart, 1957), p. 32; Peter Seewald, "Gruss Gott, ihr seid frei," in Wolfgang Malinowski, ed. 1945: Deutschland in der Stunde Null (Hamburg, 1985), p. 105; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 125-26; and Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Paris, 7P 125, "Maquis Allemands."
146. A few examples: in mid-April, a farmer's wife was executed by counterattacking German troops in northern Württemberg because she had been too friendly to American soldiers; in early May, a Hitler Youth in Passau shot a girl in the backside when he spotted her in flagrante delicto with a U.S. soldier; during the same period, a women was arrested by retreating German troops in Tamweg (Austria) after she had helped an American POW who had stumbled while being forced marched through her town; and during the same month, Werewolves in southern Baden killed a women who was seen dating a French NCO. Friedrich Blumenstock, Der Einmarsch der Amerikaner und Französen in Nordlichen Württemberg im April 1945 (Stuttgart, 1957), p. 32; Peter Seewald, "Gruss Gott, ihr seid frei," in Wolfgang Malinowski, ed. 1945: Deutschland in der Stunde Null (Hamburg, 1985), p. 105; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 125-26; and Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Paris, 7P 125, "Maquis Allemands."
147. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
148. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
149. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
150. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
151. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
152. PRO WO 219/3761A, CAD Historical Analysis Sheet, 29 October 1944; and NA RG 165, Civil Affairs Division (CAD) 250.1, State Dept. cable information War Department, 13 July 1945. For discussions of the nonfraternization policy, see Julian Bach, Jr., America's Germany: An Account of the Occupation (New York, 1946), pp. 71-75; Eugene Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany (New York, 1959), pp. 54-56; Franklin Davis, Jr., Come As a Conqueror: The United States Army's Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949 (New York, 1967), pp. 142-46; Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 95, 249-52; Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 134-36; and Edward Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1977), pp. 145-55, 170-71.
153. Alfred Cornebise, The Amaroc News: The Daily Newspaper of the American Forces in Germany, 1919-1923 (Carbondale, 1981), pp. 6-8, 29-30, 181-85.
154. Earl Ziemke, The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany, 1944-1946 (Washington, 1975), p. 97.
155. NA RG 165, CAD 250.1, Information and Evaluation Division "Notes on Army Policy with Respect to Occupation Troops in Germany"; PRO WO 219/5170, SHAEF G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 51, 11 March 1945, part i; PRO WO 219/3513, McSherry to Commanding Officer, ECAD, 5 March 1945; ECAD "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 39, 12 March 1945; The New York Times, 10 June 1945; 13 June 1945; and 25 June 1945.
156. NA RG 165, CAD 250.1, Information and Evaluation Division "Notes on Army Policy with Respect to Occupation Troops in Germany"; PRO WO 219/5170, SHAEF G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 51, 11 March 1945, part i; PRO WO 219/3513, McSherry to Commanding Officer, ECAD, 5 March 1945; ECAD "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 39, 12 March 1945; The New York Times, 10 June 1945; 13 June 1945; and 25 June 1945.
157. NA RG 165, CAD 250.1, Information and Evaluation Division "Notes on Army Policy with Respect to Occupation Troops in Germany"; PRO WO 219/5170, SHAEF G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 51, 11 March 1945, part i; PRO WO 219/3513, McSherry to Commanding Officer, ECAD, 5 March 1945; ECAD "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 39, 12 March 1945; The New York Times, 10 June 1945; 13 June 1945; and 25 June 1945.
158. NA RG 165, CAD 250.1, Information and Evaluation Division "Notes on Army Policy with Respect to Occupation Troops in Germany"; PRO WO 219/5170, SHAEF G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 51, 11 March 1945, part i; PRO WO 219/3513, McSherry to Commanding Officer, ECAD, 5 March 1945; ECAD "Intelligence Bulletin" no. 39, 12 March 1945; The New York Times, 10 June 1945; 13 June 1945; and 25 June 1945.
159. PRO FO 371/46933, SHAEF G-5 "Political Intelligence Letter" no. 9, 4 June 1945.
160. NA RG 165, CAD 250.1, Matthews to Hilldring, 20 June 1945; Witsell to Pittinger, 15 July 1945; and The New York Times, 25 June 1945.
161. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 14 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 8 September 1945; 21 September 1945; The New York Times, 13 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 4 September 1945; 21 September 1945; 22 September 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 24 October 1945. A U.S. Army campaign to encourage voluntary nonfraternization sputtered badly. The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 6 November 1945.
162. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 14 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 8 September 1945; 21 September 1945; The New York Times, 13 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 4 September 1945; 21 September 1945; 22 September 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 24 October 1945. A U.S. Army campaign to encourage voluntary nonfraternization sputtered badly. The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 6 November 1945.
163. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 14 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 8 September 1945; 21 September 1945; The New York Times, 13 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 4 September 1945; 21 September 1945; 22 September 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 24 October 1945. A U.S. Army campaign to encourage voluntary nonfraternization sputtered badly. The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 6 November 1945.
164. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 14 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 8 September 1945; 21 September 1945; The New York Times, 13 June 1945; 15 July 1945; 4 September 1945; 21 September 1945; 22 September 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 24 October 1945. A U.S. Army campaign to encourage voluntary nonfraternization sputtered badly. The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 6 November 1945.
165. The New York Times, 13 June 1945.
166. The New York Times, 23 August 1945.
167. The Sunday Observer, 26 August 1945.
168. Neue Zeit, 26 August 1945; Weser-Kurier, 5 December 1945; 29 December 1945; 3 January 1946; 5 January 1946; 9 January 1946; and The New York Times, 23 August 1945. A woman writing to the Neue Württembergische Zeitung (21 February 1947) claimed that the men she knew were impractical and took no account of shortages.
169. Neue Zeit, 26 August 1945; Weser-Kurier, 5 December 1945; 29 December 1945; 3 January 1946; 5 January 1946; 9 January 1946; and The New York Times, 23 August 1945. A woman writing to the Neue Württembergische Zeitung (21 February 1947) claimed that the men she knew were impractical and took no account of shortages.
170. Neue Zeit, 26 August 1945; Weser-Kurier, 5 December 1945; 29 December 1945; 3 January 1946; 5 January 1946; 9 January 1946; and The New York Times, 23 August 1945. A woman writing to the Neue Württembergische Zeitung (21 February 1947) claimed that the men she knew were impractical and took no account of shortages.
171. Neue Zeit, 26 August 1945; Weser-Kurier, 5 December 1945; 29 December 1945; 3 January 1946; 5 January 1946; 9 January 1946; and The New York Times, 23 August 1945. A woman writing to the Neue Württembergische Zeitung (21 February 1947) claimed that the men she knew were impractical and took no account of shortages.
172. The New York Times, 9 October 1945.
173. Bach, America's Germany, pp. 82-83.
174. The New York Times, 30 September 1945.
175. Hilde Thurnwald suggests that the wives of returning German soldiers probably succeeded in keeping a lot hidden in this regard. She notes that children in day-care facilities and Kindergärten often described chocolate and other gifts provided by their mothers' foreign friends, even though they had been warned to keep their mouths shut. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 197.
176. Ibid.
177. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 57, 15 August 1946.
178. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 70, 14 November 1946.
179. The New York Times, 30 September 1945.
180. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 341.
181. Ibid.
182. Smith, Heimatkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, pp. 33-34.
183. The New York Times, 23 August 1945. See also the appeal cited in John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 340.
184. The New York Times, 23 August 1945. See also the appeal cited in John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 340.
185. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 4, 15 October 1945. Numbers indicating the rate of release for POWs can only be estimated, but the United States, the first Allied power to discharge its prisoners, had clearly freed almost all of its captives by the end of 1946. Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, pp. 13, 34-35.
186. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 4, 15 October 1945. Numbers indicating the rate of release for POWs can only be estimated, but the United States, the first Allied power to discharge its prisoners, had clearly freed almost all of its captives by the end of 1946. Smith, Heimkehr aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, pp. 13, 34-35.
187. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, pp. 198-99.
188. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; Daily Express, 20 July 1945; and The New York Times, 20 July 1945.
189. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; Daily Express, 20 July 1945; and The New York Times, 20 July 1945.
190. The Globe and Mail, 20 July 1945; Daily Express, 20 July 1945; and The New York Times, 20 July 1945.
191. Bible (KJV), Jeremiah, 7:29; and I Corinthians, 11:6.
192. Henry Rousso, "L'Épuration en France: Une histoire inachevée," Vingtième Siècle 33 (1992): 84-85; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz,", p. 340.
193. Henry Rousso, "L'Épuration en France: Une histoire inachevée," Vingtième Siècle 33 (1992): 84-85; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz,", p. 340.
194. Archives Nationales, Paris, F/1cIII/1219, "Rapport Mensuel d'Information," 26 July 1945, part i; and "Rapport Bi-mensuel d'Information," 10 August 1945, part i.
195. Archives Nationales, Paris, F/1cIII/1219, "Rapport Mensuel d'Information," 26 July 1945, part i; and "Rapport Bi-mensuel d'Information," 10 August 1945, part i.
196. Cornebise, The Amaroc News, pp. 7, 183-84; and Stephenson, "'Emancipation' and its Problems," 357. In 1919/20, blacklists of fraternizing females were posted in the Rhineland, but the main form of physical abuse was the blackening of women's faces.
197. Cornebise, The Amaroc News, pp. 7, 183-84; and Stephenson, "'Emancipation' and its Problems," 357. In 1919/20, blacklists of fraternizing females were posted in the Rhineland, but the main form of physical abuse was the blackening of women's faces.
198. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone" no. 4, 20 November 1945; Bach, America's Germany, p. 79; and Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 107.
199. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone" no. 4, 20 November 1945; Bach, America's Germany, p. 79; and Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 107.
200. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone" no. 4, 20 November 1945; Bach, America's Germany, p. 79; and Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 107.
201. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone" no. 4, 20 November 1945; Bach, America's Germany, p. 79; and Rodnik, Postwar Germans, p. 107.
202. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office, R&A Branch "Bi-Weekly Political Summary," 31 October 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-5 "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 2, 8 September 1945; USFET "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945; Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Bestatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fürth (München, 1986), p. 71; and Karl-Ulrich Gelberg, ed., Kriegsende und Neuanfang in Augsburg 1945: Erinnerungen und Berichte (München, 1996), p. 147.
203. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office, R&A Branch "Bi-Weekly Political Summary," 31 October 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-5 "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 2, 8 September 1945; USFET "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945; Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Bestatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fürth (München, 1986), p. 71; and Karl-Ulrich Gelberg, ed., Kriegsende und Neuanfang in Augsburg 1945: Erinnerungen und Berichte (München, 1996), p. 147.
204. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office, R&A Branch "Bi-Weekly Political Summary," 31 October 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-5 "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 2, 8 September 1945; USFET "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945; Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Bestatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fürth (München, 1986), p. 71; and Karl-Ulrich Gelberg, ed., Kriegsende und Neuanfang in Augsburg 1945: Erinnerungen und Berichte (München, 1996), p. 147.
205. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office, R&A Branch "Bi-Weekly Political Summary," 31 October 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-5 "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 2, 8 September 1945; USFET "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945; Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Bestatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fürth (München, 1986), p. 71; and Karl-Ulrich Gelberg, ed., Kriegsende und Neuanfang in Augsburg 1945: Erinnerungen und Berichte (München, 1996), p. 147.
206. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET MG Office, R&A Branch "Bi-Weekly Political Summary," 31 October 1945. See also NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-5 "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 2, 8 September 1945; USFET "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945; Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Bestatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fürth (München, 1986), p. 71; and Karl-Ulrich Gelberg, ed., Kriegsende und Neuanfang in Augsburg 1945: Erinnerungen und Berichte (München, 1996), p. 147.
207. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945.
208. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 16, 1 November 1945.
209. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3. "So far," said this report, "resentment appears to be principally directed against the German girl rather than against the soldier, and it is likely that this resentment is no more than a normal reaction." See also Bach, America's Germany, pp. 78-79.
210. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3. "So far," said this report, "resentment appears to be principally directed against the German girl rather than against the soldier, and it is likely that this resentment is no more than a normal reaction." See also Bach, America's Germany, pp. 78-79.
211. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
212. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
213. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
214. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
215. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
216. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
217. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 October 1945, "Intelligence" no. 3; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; no. 22, 13 December 1945; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; Pongauer und Pinzgauer Post, 29 June 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947. It was reported in the postwar German press that Wehrmacht soldiers had fathered 9000 children in Norway and 6000 in Denmark. Die Neue Zeitung, 7 December 1945; and Weser-Kurier, 16 April 1947.
218. Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947.
219. Biddiscombe, Werwolf!, p. 147; and NA RG 319, IRR File XE 111873, CIC USFET Region II (Frankfurt) 'Edelweiss Pirates,' 4 March 1946.
220. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 156; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Major S. Terrell, "Berlin Summary" no. 34, 7 March 1946; Weser-Kurier, 10 November 1945; and Davis, Come as a Conqueror, p. 145.
221. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 156; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Major S. Terrell, "Berlin Summary" no. 34, 7 March 1946; Weser-Kurier, 10 November 1945; and Davis, Come as a Conqueror, p. 145.
222. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 156; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Major S. Terrell, "Berlin Summary" no. 34, 7 March 1946; Weser-Kurier, 10 November 1945; and Davis, Come as a Conqueror, p. 145.
223. Thurnwald, Gegenwartsprobleme Berliner Familien, p. 156; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), Major S. Terrell, "Berlin Summary" no. 34, 7 March 1946; Weser-Kurier, 10 November 1945; and Davis, Come as a Conqueror, p. 145.
224. Kooru, Mothers in the Fatherland, pp. 105, 160.
225. "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.imageco.at/image/salzburg/5005.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996.
226. Die Neue Zeitung, 13 June 1947.
227. See, for instance, the conversation reported in Kay Boyle, The Smoking Mountain (New York, 1963), pp. 80-82.
228. The New York Times, 23 August 1945.
229. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-19, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 11, 27 September 1945.
230. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; and no. 14, 18 October 1945.
231. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
232. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
233. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
234. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes
235. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
236. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
237. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; no. 23, 20 December 1945; no. 26, 1 January 1946; USFET MG Office "Bi-Weekly Political Summary" no. 5, 31 October 1945; PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 13, 12 January 1946; Weser-Kurier, 14 November 1945; Der Tagesspiegel, 14 November 1945; Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1945; 11 January 1946; The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 12 August 1945; and (Western Europe ed.), 30 November 1945.
238. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 2 April 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 3 May 1946; PRO FO 371/55663, "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 April 1946, "Denazification and Public Safety" no. 9; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 40, 18 April 1946.
239. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 2 April 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 3 May 1946; PRO FO 371/55663, "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 April 1946, "Denazification and Public Safety" no. 9; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 40, 18 April 1946.
240. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 2 April 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 3 May 1946; PRO FO 371/55663, "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 April 1946, "Denazification and Public Safety" no. 9; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 40, 18 April 1946.
241. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 2 April 1946; Die Neue Zeitung, 3 May 1946; PRO FO 371/55663, "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," 20 April 1946, "Denazification and Public Safety" no. 9; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 40, 18 April 1946.
242. The U.S. Constabulary reported in July 1946 that a hostile attitude toward fraternization was still a factor in most attacks against U.S. servicemen in Germany. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Report" no. 4, 9 July 1946.
243. The Stars and Stripes, 27 March 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 38, 4 April 1946; no. 53, 18 July 1946, RG 59, NA; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 23, 15 November 1946.
244. The Stars and Stripes, 27 March 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 38, 4 April 1946; no. 53, 18 July 1946, RG 59, NA; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 23, 15 November 1946.
245. The Stars and Stripes, 27 March 1946; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 38, 4 April 1946; no. 53, 18 July 1946, RG 59, NA; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 23, 15 November 1946.
246. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 135; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal Files 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 42, 2 May 1946; no. 48, 13 June 1946; and no. 49, 20 June 1946.
247. Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 135; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal Files 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 42, 2 May 1946; no. 48, 13 June 1946; and no. 49, 20 June 1946.
248. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 30, 7 February 1946; no. 34, 7 March 1946; no. 37, 28 March 1946; no. 44, 16 May 1946; no. 52, 11 July 1946; Wilkinson to the Secretary of State, 20 November 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 62, 15 August 1947; and Weser-Kurier, 27 July 1946.
249. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 30, 7 February 1946; no. 34, 7 March 1946; no. 37, 28 March 1946; no. 44, 16 May 1946; no. 52, 11 July 1946; Wilkinson to the Secretary of State, 20 November 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 62, 15 August 1947; and Weser-Kurier, 27 July 1946.
250. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 30, 7 February 1946; no. 34, 7 March 1946; no. 37, 28 March 1946; no. 44, 16 May 1946; no. 52, 11 July 1946; Wilkinson to the Secretary of State, 20 November 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 62, 15 August 1947; and Weser-Kurier, 27 July 1946.
251. The New York Times, 13 March 1946; 2 May 1946; and 6 June 1946.
252. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 143-44. David Rodnik, who did research from December 1945 to June 1946 on the condition of German society, concurs with Zink. He notes that "we rarely saw the [U.S. troops] out with middle-middle or upper-middle-class German girls." According to Rodnik, women from such classes would not put up the "caveman-like" behaviour of many U.S. troops. However, women of this station, particularly war widows, were sometimes seen in the company of American officers. Rodnik, Postwar Germans, pp. 106-07.
253. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 143-44. David Rodnik, who did research from December 1945 to June 1946 on the condition of German society, concurs with Zink. He notes that "we rarely saw the [U.S. troops] out with middle-middle or upper-middle-class German girls." According to Rodnik, women from such classes would not put up the "caveman-like" behaviour of many U.S. troops. However, women of this station, particularly war widows, were sometimes seen in the company of American officers. Rodnik, Postwar Germans, pp. 106-07.
254. Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946. In a telling passage in his memoirs, U.S. military governor Lucius Clay explained that "attracting decent girls" to military clubs was difficult because the reputation of fraternizers had been prejudiced by "tramps," by which he meant women who had associated with Americans, under cover of darkness, during the nonfraternization phase of the occupation. Lucius Clay, Decision in Germany (Garden City, N.Y., 1950), p. 62.
255. Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946. In a telling passage in his memoirs, U.S. military governor Lucius Clay explained that "attracting decent girls" to military clubs was difficult because the reputation of fraternizers had been prejudiced by "tramps," by which he meant women who had associated with Americans, under cover of darkness, during the nonfraternization phase of the occupation. Lucius Clay, Decision in Germany (Garden City, N.Y., 1950), p. 62.
256. Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen der DDR im Bundesarchiv DY30/IV/2/2.022/119, Helmut Lüssow, "'Münster Lager': Ein Zentrum des Schwarzhandels und der Prostitution".
257. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 156.
258. Not only did these women have an obvious impact on the behavior of their own spouses, but some tried to exercise a broader influence as well. One army wife wrote to The Stars and Stripes in the spring of 1946: "If some of the officers who fraternize could only know how we abhore 'rubbing shoulders' with their 'shack jobs' in our local clubs, they might confine them to their shacks. Please fellas, have a little respect ..." The New York Times, 3 June 1946.
259. Die Neue Zeitung, 11 August 1947.
260. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 359.
261. Figures on attacks and arrests are compiled from original information collected by the author. A list of relevant incidents is available on request. Population figures are calculated from the 1946 census in Germany and the 1951 census in Austria. See Volksund Berufszählung vom 29, Oktober 1946 in den vier Besatzungszonen und Gross-Berlin: Volkszählung-Tabellenteil (Berlin, 1949), p. 52; and Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 1. Juni 1951: Tabellenband I (Demographischer Teil) (Vienna, 1953), pp. 118-19.
262. Figures on attacks and arrests are compiled from original information collected by the author. A list of relevant incidents is available on request. Population figures are calculated from the 1946 census in Germany and the 1951 census in Austria. See Volksund Berufszählung vom 29, Oktober 1946 in den vier Besatzungszonen und Gross-Berlin: Volkszählung-Tabellenteil (Berlin, 1949), p. 52; and Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 1. Juni 1951: Tabellenband I (Demographischer Teil) (Vienna, 1953), pp. 118-19.
263. NA RG 59 State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 29, 31 January 1946.
264. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Report" no. 20, 25 October 1946; "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 113, 2 August 1948; and no. 122, 4 October 1948.
265. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Report" no. 20, 25 October 1946; "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 113, 2 August 1948; and no. 122, 4 October 1948.
266. "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/5040.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996.
267. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 51, 4 July 1946.
268. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 37, 28 March 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 83, 5 January 1948; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 126.
269. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 37, 28 March 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 83, 5 January 1948; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 126.
270. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 37, 28 March 1946; NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 83, 5 January 1948; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 126.
271. NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 28, 21 December 1946.
272. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 345.
273. NA, History of the Counter Intelligence Corps, xxvi, p. 52.
274. The Stars and Stripes (Paris ed.), 27 September 1945; and Bach, America's Germany, p. 79.
275. The Stars and Stripes (Paris ed.), 27 September 1945; and Bach, America's Germany, p. 79.
276. The Times, 9 February 1946.
277. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 50, 27 June 1946.
278. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary' no. 71, 21 November 1946; no. 74, 12 December 1946; no. 75, 19 December 1946; and Eucom "Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 31 March 1947.
279. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary' no. 71, 21 November 1946; no. 74, 12 December 1946; no. 75, 19 December 1946; and Eucom "Intelligence Summary" no. 4, 31 March 1947.
280. For the anti-fraternization activities of the Edelweiss Piraten, see NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-19, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 33, 28 February 1946; no. 37, 28 March 1946; no. 67, 24 October 1946; no. 72, 28 November 1946; and PRO FO 371/55630, MI-14 'Mitropa' no. 18, 23 March 1946.
281. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 30, 7 February 1946; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 335-46, 356-58.
282. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 30, 7 February 1946; and John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 335-46, 356-58.
283. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Summary), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945. It is true that during the early phase of the occupation, fraternizing women proved a valuable channel of communication. The only way that German concerns reached the ears of individual American troops was through this conduit. The CIC office in Stuttgart reported in the fall of 1945 that soldiers (influenced by their girlfriends) occasionally stepped forward to protest the treatment of German acquaintances, usually describing what they alleged was "unfair" application of denazification strictures. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also The New York Times, 29 September 1945.
284. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Summary), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945. It is true that during the early phase of the occupation, fraternizing women proved a valuable channel of communication. The only way that German concerns reached the ears of individual American troops was through this conduit. The CIC office in Stuttgart reported in the fall of 1945 that soldiers (influenced by their girlfriends) occasionally stepped forward to protest the treatment of German acquaintances, usually describing what they alleged was "unfair" application of denazification strictures. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also The New York Times, 29 September 1945.
285. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Summary), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945. It is true that during the early phase of the occupation, fraternizing women proved a valuable channel of communication. The only way that German concerns reached the ears of individual American troops was through this conduit. The CIC office in Stuttgart reported in the fall of 1945 that soldiers (influenced by their girlfriends) occasionally stepped forward to protest the treatment of German acquaintances, usually describing what they alleged was "unfair" application of denazification strictures. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also The New York Times, 29 September 1945.
286. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Summary), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 14, 18 October 1945; and PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945. It is true that during the early phase of the occupation, fraternizing women proved a valuable channel of communication. The only way that German concerns reached the ears of individual American troops was through this conduit. The CIC office in Stuttgart reported in the fall of 1945 that soldiers (influenced by their girlfriends) occasionally stepped forward to protest the treatment of German acquaintances, usually describing what they alleged was "unfair" application of denazification strictures. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945. See also The New York Times, 29 September 1945.
287. The Christian Science Monitor, 3 December 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 24, 27 December 1945. According to The New York Times (23 August 1945), only a few older men could summon sufficient objectivity and insight to admit that if foreign girls had rallied around Wehrmacht soldiers while they were abroad, it was only to be expected that young German and Austrian women would react in the same way with a victorious, occupying army. See also Bach, America's Germany, p. 78.
288. The Christian Science Monitor, 3 December 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 24, 27 December 1945. According to The New York Times (23 August 1945), only a few older men could summon sufficient objectivity and insight to admit that if foreign girls had rallied around Wehrmacht soldiers while they were abroad, it was only to be expected that young German and Austrian women would react in the same way with a victorious, occupying army. See also Bach, America's Germany, p. 78.
289. The Christian Science Monitor, 3 December 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 24, 27 December 1945. According to The New York Times (23 August 1945), only a few older men could summon sufficient objectivity and insight to admit that if foreign girls had rallied around Wehrmacht soldiers while they were abroad, it was only to be expected that young German and Austrian women would react in the same way with a victorious, occupying army. See also Bach, America's Germany, p. 78.
290. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 52, 11 July 1946.
291. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 353-54.
292. Die Neue Zeitung, 10 December 1945. For the communist claim that "in 1933 far more women than men gave Hitler their votes and hoisted him into the saddle," see Weser Kurier, 17 November 1945. The communists drew from this interpretation of events that women "dare not remain unpolitical"; others wanted to push in the opposite direction and deprive women of the vote. See Weser Kurier, 27 October 1945.
293. Die Neue Zeitung, 10 December 1945. For the communist claim that "in 1933 far more women than men gave Hitler their votes and hoisted him into the saddle," see Weser Kurier, 17 November 1945. The communists drew from this interpretation of events that women "dare not remain unpolitical"; others wanted to push in the opposite direction and deprive women of the vote. See Weser Kurier, 27 October 1945.
294. Die Neue Zeitung, 10 December 1945. For the communist claim that "in 1933 far more women than men gave Hitler their votes and hoisted him into the saddle," see Weser Kurier, 17 November 1945. The communists drew from this interpretation of events that women "dare not remain unpolitical"; others wanted to push in the opposite direction and deprive women of the vote. See Weser Kurier, 27 October 1945.
295. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 348; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal Survey 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945; no. 62, 19 September 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 132, 20 December 1948.
296. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 348; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal Survey 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945; no. 62, 19 September 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 132, 20 December 1948.
297. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 348; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal Survey 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 22, 13 December 1945; no. 62, 19 September 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 132, 20 December 1948.
298. Die Süddeutsche Zeitung, 9 November 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946.
299. Die Süddeutsche Zeitung, 9 November 1946; and Die Neue Zeitung, 15 November 1946.
300. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 355; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 126-27.
301. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 355; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 126-27.
302. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137, 144; and Davis, Come As a Conqueror p. 145.
303. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137, 144; and Davis, Come As a Conqueror p. 145.
304. Boyle, The Smoking Mountain, pp. 137-38. During an earlier phase of the occupation, the CIC had closed a stage show that included unflattering jokes about fraternization. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 69, 7 November 1946.
305. Boyle, The Smoking Mountain, pp. 137-38. During an earlier phase of the occupation, the CIC had closed a stage show that included unflattering jokes about fraternization. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 69, 7 November 1946.
306. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 43, 25 May 1946; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 48, 13 June 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 85, 19 January 1948.
307. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 43, 25 May 1946; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 48, 13 June 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 85, 19 January 1948.
308. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 43, 25 May 1946; USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 48, 13 June 1946; and NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 85, 19 January 1948.
309. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," p. 347.
310. Neue Zeit, 18 October 1945; and Weser Kurier, 26 February 1947.
311. Neue Zeit, 18 October 1945; and Weser Kurier, 26 February 1947.
312. The Stars and Stripes (South Germany ed.), 30 August 1945.
313. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 31, 14 February 1945.
314. Keith Nelson, "The 'Black Horror on the Rhine': Race as a Factor in Post-World War One Diplomacy," Journal of Modern History 42 (December 1970): 606-27.
315. Mary Pennick Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Soldier, World War II (Detroit, 1975), p. 170; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, p. 149.
316. Mary Pennick Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Soldier, World War II (Detroit, 1975), p. 170; and Halsell, Black/White Sex, p. 149.
317. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945.
318. Graham Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull (London, 1987), pp. 8, 103-06, 113-14, 134, 145-46. These measures included the prohibition of "mixed parties," the isolation of Blacks in remote camps and training areas, the restriction of Black troops from desirable portions of nearby towns, the limitation of passes, and efforts to get Black soldiers to buy war bonds in order to reduce their spending power.
319. Phillip McGuire, Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II (Santa Barbara, 1983), pp. 240-41.
320. Halsell, Black/White Sex, p. 158.
321. The New York Times, 2 December 1946.
322. Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull, pp. 138-51,198-99; and Norman Longmate, The G.I.s: The Americans in Britain, 1942-1945 (London, 1975), pp. 118, 127, 129-35.
323. Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull, pp. 138-51,198-99; and Norman Longmate, The G.I.s: The Americans in Britain, 1942-1945 (London, 1975), pp. 118, 127, 129-35.
324. Neil Wynn, The Afro-American and the Second World War (London, 1976), pp. 28-38.
325. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 62, 19 September 1946.
326. Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier, p. 192; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 42, 2 May 1946.
327. Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier, p. 192; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 42, 2 May 1946.
328. Motley, ed., The Invisible Soldier, p. 191.
329. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 67, 24 October 1946; and no. 68, 31 October 1946. Agents of the Counter Intelligence Corps obtained signed letters that contained statements obviously meant to agitate U.S. troops.
330. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 56, 8 August 1946.
331. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 29, 31 January 1946. The U.S. zone governor, General Joseph McNarney, wanted the War Department to recall all Black troops from Germany. The deputy governor, General Lucius Clay, was an advocate of desegregation and the deployment of Blacks as combat troops. He blamed interracial fraternization on the concentration of Black troops in the service corps, where they gained access to the supplies that supposedly greased the wheels of social interaction in occupied Germany. The New York Times, 2 December 1946.
332. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 29, 31 January 1946. The U.S. zone governor, General Joseph McNarney, wanted the War Department to recall all Black troops from Germany. The deputy governor, General Lucius Clay, was an advocate of desegregation and the deployment of Blacks as combat troops. He blamed interracial fraternization on the concentration of Black troops in the service corps, where they gained access to the supplies that supposedly greased the wheels of social interaction in occupied Germany. The New York Times, 2 December 1946.
333. Weser-Kurier, 25 May 1946.
334. The New York Times, 26 October 1946. In Maroldsweisach, a German was arrested in the summer of 1946 for publically condemning American tolerance of prostitution-"Close your whorehouses with your American whores. When the soldiers are going home they only laugh about the German girls. The American soldiers are no good." NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Report" no. 11, 27 August 1946.
335. The New York Times, 26 October 1946. In Maroldsweisach, a German was arrested in the summer of 1946 for publically condemning American tolerance of prostitution-"Close your whorehouses with your American whores. When the soldiers are going home they only laugh about the German girls. The American soldiers are no good." NA RG 407, WWII Operations Reports 1940-48, U.S. Constabulary G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Report" no. 11, 27 August 1946.
336. Weser-Kurier, 25 May 1946; and 6 November 1946.
337. Koikari, "Rethinking Gender and Power in the US Occupation of Japan," 320-28.
338. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
339. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
340. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
341. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
342. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
343. Zink, The United States in Germany, pp. 137-38; Ruhl, Unsere verlorenen Jahre, pp. 154-56; and "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996. For other estimates on the numbers of illegitimate children in occupied Germany, see Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany, p. 153; Davidson, The Death and Life of Germany, pp. 322-23; and Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, p. 132.
344. "Salzburg 1945-1955," http://www.image.co.at/image/salzburg/15510.htm, as of 13 Dec. 1996.
345. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945.
346. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' in Linz," p. 347; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; Murphy to the Secretary of State, 26 October 1945, Enclosure; The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 1 November 1945; and The New York Times, 1 November 1945.
347. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' in Linz," p. 347; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; Murphy to the Secretary of State, 26 October 1945, Enclosure; The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 1 November 1945; and The New York Times, 1 November 1945.
348. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' in Linz," p. 347; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; Murphy to the Secretary of State, 26 October 1945, Enclosure; The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 1 November 1945; and The New York Times, 1 November 1945.
349. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' in Linz," p. 347; NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 13, 11 October 1945; Murphy to the Secretary of State, 26 October 1945, Enclosure; The Stars and Stripes (Western European ed.), 1 November 1945; and The New York Times, 1 November 1945.
350. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 348, 357; Bach, America's Germany, pp. 80-81; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 16, 1 November 1945. The Weser-Kurier (20 October 1945) compared hair-cutting attacks to "Nazi Fehme methods," and said that such incidents were calculated to disturb relations between Germans and American occupation forces.
351. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 348, 357; Bach, America's Germany, pp. 80-81; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 16, 1 November 1945. The Weser-Kurier (20 October 1945) compared hair-cutting attacks to "Nazi Fehme methods," and said that such incidents were calculated to disturb relations between Germans and American occupation forces.
352. John, "Das 'Haarabschneiderkommando' von Linz," pp. 348, 357; Bach, America's Germany, pp. 80-81; PRO FO 371/46935, MI-14 "Mitropa" no. 8, 3 November 1945; and NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), USFET G-2 "Weekly Intelligence Summary" no. 16, 1 November 1945. The Weser-Kurier (20 October 1945) compared hair-cutting attacks to "Nazi Fehme methods," and said that such incidents were calculated to disturb relations between Germans and American occupation forces.
353. For bar brawls launched by resentful Australian males against U.S. soldiers stationed in that country, see Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 239-40. For attacks on Australian women attending functions for Black American soldiers, see Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 13-14.
354. For bar brawls launched by resentful Australian males against U.S. soldiers stationed in that country, see Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 239-40. For attacks on Australian women attending functions for Black American soldiers, see Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides, pp. 13-14.
355. PRO FO 1007/288, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Digest" no. 5, 15 November 1945. For the resentments of young British males, see also Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 230, 234, 238; and Longmate, The G.I.s, pp. 102-03.
356. PRO FO 1007/288, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Digest" no. 5, 15 November 1945. For the resentments of young British males, see also Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 230, 234, 238; and Longmate, The G.I.s, pp. 102-03.
357. PRO FO 1007/288, ACA(BE) Intelligence Organisation "Digest" no. 5, 15 November 1945. For the resentments of young British males, see also Costello, Virtue under Fire, pp. 230, 234, 238; and Longmate, The G.I.s, pp. 102-03.
358. Longmate, The G.I.s, p. 334.
359. The Stars and Stripes (Marseilles ed.), 20 December 1944.
360. Ruth Bleier, "Social and Political Bias in Science: An Explanation of Animal Studies and their Generalizations to Human Behaviors and Evolution," in Genes and Gender (New York, 1979), vol. ii, pp. 58-59; and Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women (New York, 1984), p. 52.
361. Ruth Bleier, "Social and Political Bias in Science: An Explanation of Animal Studies and their Generalizations to Human Behaviors and Evolution," in Genes and Gender (New York, 1979), vol. ii, pp. 58-59; and Ruth Bleier, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women (New York, 1984), p. 52.
362. NA RG 59, State Dept. Decimal File 1945-49, 740.00119 Control (Germany), OMGUS Information Control "Intelligence Summary" no. 57, 31 August 1946.