Rethinking gender and power in the US occupation of Japan, 1945-1952

Gender and History

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 313-335

  Koikari, Mire ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039064916     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.00144     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. The letter is dated 5 May 1948; Record Group #5, Box #12, Folder 'Bus-Buz', the Records of the US Occupation of Japan, MacArthur Archives and Library, Norfolk, Virginia.
2. Even though the occupiers included not only the US but also other Allied nations, Douglas MacArthur and the American forces played a predominant role in the occupation of Japan. Thus I refer to the foreign occupation of Japan from 1945 to 1952 as the American occupation of Japan.
3. Wartime hatred that developed between Japan and the US was not simply that of 'enemy countries'. The two countries constructed each other through racialised discourses, and such racialised perceptions of each other fuelled the ferocity of mass killing that occurred in the Pacific War. For details of the racial construction of Japan and the US during the war, see John Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (Pantheon Books, New York, 1986).
4. These two terms, 'reorientation' and 'rehabilitation', were frequently used by the American occupiers to describe the purpose of the occupation. See, for example, Political Reorientation of Japan, September 1945 to September 1948, Report of Government Section (National Diet Library, Tokyo).
5. For instance, Florence Powdermaker who was a 'visiting expert' in occupied Japan argued as follows: This occupation has had no historical guide. Its approach is an out-growth of the slowly rising tide of humanism in the West of which the United Nations is also an example. It is similarly, an experiment, with the inevitable concomitants of trial and error. The goodwill, the desire to be helpful to the Japanese as a people and as a nation is found, by and large, at all levels and seems to stem from the genuine altruism and enlightened concept of the United States interests of General MacArthur and many members of the Occupation. One needs only to recall the colonization policies in the East of the Western world in the last centuries to realize the colossal differences in point of view. 'Report of Dr. Florence B. Powdermaker, Visiting Expert, Submitted to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Tokyo, 15 October 1948', Record Group #5, Box #112, Folder #3, MacArthur Archives and Library.
6. This female officer, Beate Sirota Gordon (then Beate Sirota), subsequently published her autobiography in Japanese. In it, she gives an extensive description of her involvement in the constitutional revision in Japan. See Beate Sirota Gordon, 1945 Nen No Kurisumasu: Nihonkoku Kenpo Ni 'Danjobyodo' o Kaita Josei No Jiden (Kashiwa Shobo, Tokyo 1995).
7. SCAP stands for Supreme Commander of Allied Powers. The official Records of the American occupation forces are usually referred to as SCAP Records (Record Group 331). They were housed at the Washington National Records Center, in Suitland, Maryland, when I conducted my research in summer 1995. They are now located in College Park, Maryland.
8. Gordon, 1945 Nen No Kurisumasu, 'Watashiwa Koushite Josei No Kenri Joko O Kisoushita', Sekai, 583 (1993); Carmen Johnson, Senryo Nikki: Kusanone No Onnatachi (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1986); Helen Hosp Seamans, 'Occupational Observes' (manuscript), MacArthur Archives and Library. It does not necessarily mean that American female occupiers shared a uniform view about the occupation, or that American women participated in the occupation in the same manner as their male counterparts. As in the case of European women's participation in colonial projects, American women's relations to the US occupation of Japan, a case of US imperialism, are different from those of American men and heterogeneous within. For the role of colonial women in European cases see Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (eds), Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992).
9. Gordon, 1945 Nen No Kurisumasu, 'Watashiwa Koushite Josei No Kenri Joko O Kisoushita', Sekai, 583 (1993); Carmen Johnson, Senryo Nikki: Kusanone No Onnatachi (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1986); Helen Hosp Seamans, 'Occupational Observes' (manuscript), MacArthur Archives and Library. It does not necessarily mean that American female occupiers shared a uniform view about the occupation, or that American women participated in the occupation in the same manner as their male counterparts. As in the case of European women's participation in colonial projects, American women's relations to the US occupation of Japan, a case of US imperialism, are different from those of American men and heterogeneous within. For the role of colonial women in European cases see Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (eds), Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992).
10. Gordon, 1945 Nen No Kurisumasu, 'Watashiwa Koushite Josei No Kenri Joko O Kisoushita', Sekai, 583 (1993); Carmen Johnson, Senryo Nikki: Kusanone No Onnatachi (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1986); Helen Hosp Seamans, 'Occupational Observes' (manuscript), MacArthur Archives and Library. It does not necessarily mean that American female occupiers shared a uniform view about the occupation, or that American women participated in the occupation in the same manner as their male counterparts. As in the case of European women's participation in colonial projects, American women's relations to the US occupation of Japan, a case of US imperialism, are different from those of American men and heterogeneous within. For the role of colonial women in European cases see Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (eds), Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992).
11. Gordon, 1945 Nen No Kurisumasu, 'Watashiwa Koushite Josei No Kenri Joko O Kisoushita', Sekai, 583 (1993); Carmen Johnson, Senryo Nikki: Kusanone No Onnatachi (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1986); Helen Hosp Seamans, 'Occupational Observes' (manuscript), MacArthur Archives and Library. It does not necessarily mean that American female occupiers shared a uniform view about the occupation, or that American women participated in the occupation in the same manner as their male counterparts. As in the case of European women's participation in colonial projects, American women's relations to the US occupation of Japan, a case of US imperialism, are different from those of American men and heterogeneous within. For the role of colonial women in European cases see Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (eds), Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992).
12. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
13. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
14. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
15. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
16. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
17. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
18. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
19. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
20. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
21. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
22. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
23. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
24. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
25. Studies critical of the occupation include: Yasuko Ito, Sengo Nihon Josei Shi (Otsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1974), 'Nihon Fujin Undo Hatten Nojodankai', Rekishi Hyoron, 42 (1975) , and 'Sengo Fujin Seisaku No Shiteki Tokucho', Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Kiyo, 42 (1980); Kinue Sakurai, Bosei Hogo Undo Shi, (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1991); Seiichi Yoda, 'Senryo Ki Ni Okeru Fijin Kaiho', in Senryo Ki Nihon No Keizai To Seiji, ed. Takahide Nakamura (Todai Shuppan, Tokyo, 1979); Sayoko Yoneda, 'Sengo Minshushugi Undo No Hatten To Fujinkaiho No Kadai', Rekishi Hyoron, 271 (1972). Those that are uncritical in evaluating the effects of the occupation on women include: Masako Amano, 'Senryo Ka No Josei No Ishiki To Kodo: Jiyu No lbuki E No Akogare', Josei Mondai Seminar (1992); Kiyoko Nishi, Senryo Ka No Nihon Fujin Seisaku: Sono Rekishi To Shogen (Domesu Shuppan, Tokyo, 1989); Gail Nomura, The Allied Occupation of Japan: Reform of Japanese Government Labor Policy on Women (unpub. PhD diss., University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1978); Susan Pharr, 'The Politics of Women's Rights', in Democratizing Japan, ed. Robert Ward and Yoshikazu Sakamoto (University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987); Chikako Uemura, 'Showa Nijunendai No Fujin Kyokiku', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 18 (1988), 'Sengo Fujin Kyoiku No Genten O Tazunete', Josei Kyoyo, (1988), 'Senryo Ka Ni Okeru Chiho Gunseibu No Katsudo', Fujin Kyoiku Joho, 26 (1992), 'Nihon Ni Okeru Senryo Seisaku To Josei Kaihou', Joseigaku Kenkyu, 2 (1993). See Pharr's article for the most explicit account of the American occupation of Japan as a 'feminist revolution'.
26. In 'Gendering Colonialism or Colonising Gender?: Recent Women's Studies Approaches to White Women and the History of British Colonialism', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990), Jane Haggis points out that recent efforts to bring women back to the history of colonialism tend to produce a picture whereby Western colonising women had 'good intentions' and thus were better and morally superior colonisers in comparison to their male counterparts. Haggis opposes this type of argument and states that we need to pay attention to 'the ways in which such good intentions might feed into, or participate in, or appear as other than good in the overall context of colonial domination and exploitation'. She further suggests that we must make colonialism 'the central factor requiring analyses' in examining women's experiences in the colonial context. Such a critical reading of Western colonialism/imperialism is particularly necessary in the cases of US occupation of Japan.
27. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
28. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
29. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
30. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
31. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
32. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
33. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
34. T. J. Boisseau, They Called Me Bebe Bwana: A Critical Cultural Study of An Imperial Feminist', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (1995); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1994); Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonized Women', American Ethnologist, 16 (1987); Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (Grove Press, New York, 1965); Nancy Hunt, 'Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura's Foyer Social, 1946-1960', Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 15 (1990); Swarna Jayaweera, 'European Women Educators Under the British Colonial Administration in Sri Lanka', Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990); Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Duke University Press, Durham, 1993); Ann McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (Routledge, New York and London, 1995).
35. In particular, the colonised subjects' nationalist defence in British India presents an exemplary case in which gendered discourses of anti-colonial resistance had problematic implications for women.
36. McClintock, Imperial Leather, pp. 5-8.
37. McClintock, Imperial Leather, p. 4.
38. Kaplan and Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism, addresses the issues of US imperialism and sheds light on various manifestations of American imperial hegemony in international relations. Its introductory essay by Amy Kaplan, 'Left Alone with America: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture', succinctly points out a lack of empirical and analytical attentions to US imperialism in the studies of US culture and history.
39. Kaplan and Pease (eds), Cultures of United States Imperialism, addresses the issues of US imperialism and sheds light on various manifestations of American imperial hegemony in international relations. Its introductory essay by Amy Kaplan, 'Left Alone with America: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture', succinctly points out a lack of empirical and analytical attentions to US imperialism in the studies of US culture and history.
40. McClintock, Imperial Leather, p. 13.
41. The existing ruling class was adamant about the need to preserve imperial institutions - the Emperor himself, an imperial throne, and nationalist discourses which were the backbone of the pre-surrender imperial social and cultural system - and were fairly successful at doing so. In this essay, the legacy of Japanese imperialism is observed in the Japanese nationalist politics during the occupation whereby the ruling class insisted on preserving the sexual and racial purity of the 'national body'.
42. The MacArthur Memorial was built on an ex-slave estate owned by MacArthur's ancestors, and exhibits the history of Douglas MacArthur, and consequently the history of twentieth-century American foreign interventions in the Philippines, Japan, and Korea. The genealogy of the MacArthur family includes his father, who fought in the Indian Wars and later became the military governor in the Philippines, and his grandfather who also fought in the Indian War. The memorial is a significant reminder of American imperial history.
43. 'Report of Dr. Florence B. Powdermaker, Visiting Expert, Submitted to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Tokyo 15 October 1948'; Record Group #5, Box #112, Folder #3, MacArthur Archives and Library.
44. Quotations in this and the following paragraphs are from Civil Affairs Handbook, Japan, Washington, DC, Army Service Forces Headquarters, 1944-5; Army Service Forces Manual. National Diet Library, Tokyo Japan, pp. 76-81.
45. Quotations in this and the following paragraphs are from Civil Affairs Handbook, Japan, Washington, DC, Army Service Forces Headquarters, 1944-5; Army Service Forces Manual. National Diet Library, Tokyo Japan, pp. 76-81.
46. 'Message to the American People, 2 September 1945', p. 737, in Political Reorientation of Japan (National Diet Library, Tokyo).
47. 'Message'. MacArthur probably meant that, once liberated, the Japanese would focus on their own progress rather than conquest of neighbouring countries.
48. 'Progress of Japanese Women, Prepared by the Women's Affairs Branch of the CI&E for General Federation of Women's Clubs in Washington, D.C.', 7 January 1947; Box #5247, File: Weed, Ethel, Feature Stories, SCAP Records.
49. Among numerous documents that show such gendered construction of the US, 'Answers to Question from Japanese Women', released by the CI&E section, is an exemplary text. Quotations in this paragraph are from this pamphlet that was used by the American occupiers in responding to Japanese women's questions at training and educational workshops (#5247, File: Weed, Ethel, Feature Stories, p. 5, SCAP Records).
50. Its literal translation is 'women from good families'.
51. Toshio Sumimoto, Senryo Hiroku (Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, 1952), p. 51.
52. This information is from prefectural police reports and reports by the prefectural governors and the Home Ministry. All the reports are dated September 1945, thus immediately after the surrender. (Reprinted in Shiryo Nihon Gendai Shi, 2:1, Document Nos. 77-84).
53. Clearly this reminds us of the Japanese military's policy during the war: to coerce women in the colonised countries such as Korea and China into sexual slavery as 'comfort women'. It is not hard to speculate that the Japanese soldiers' experience in the recent war was a significant factor that propelled the Japanese authorities to devise this policy in face of the arrival of American soldiers.
54. Masayo Duus, Haisha No Okurimono (Kodansha Bunko, Tokyo, 1995); Daijiro Kobayashi and Akira Murase, Minnawa Shiranai Kokka Baishun Meirei (Yuhikaku Shuppan, Tokyo, 1992); Akiko Rugiyama, 'Haisen To R.A.A.', Josei Gaku Nenpo, 9 (1988); Toshio Sumimoto, Senryo Hiroku (Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, 1952).
55. Masayo Duus, Haisha No Okurimono (Kodansha Bunko, Tokyo, 1995); Daijiro Kobayashi and Akira Murase, Minnawa Shiranai Kokka Baishun Meirei (Yuhikaku Shuppan, Tokyo, 1992); Akiko Rugiyama, 'Haisen To R.A.A.', Josei Gaku Nenpo, 9 (1988); Toshio Sumimoto, Senryo Hiroku (Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, 1952).
56. Masayo Duus, Haisha No Okurimono (Kodansha Bunko, Tokyo, 1995); Daijiro Kobayashi and Akira Murase, Minnawa Shiranai Kokka Baishun Meirei (Yuhikaku Shuppan, Tokyo, 1992); Akiko Rugiyama, 'Haisen To R.A.A.', Josei Gaku Nenpo, 9 (1988); Toshio Sumimoto, Senryo Hiroku (Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, 1952).
57. Masayo Duus, Haisha No Okurimono (Kodansha Bunko, Tokyo, 1995); Daijiro Kobayashi and Akira Murase, Minnawa Shiranai Kokka Baishun Meirei (Yuhikaku Shuppan, Tokyo, 1992); Akiko Rugiyama, 'Haisen To R.A.A.', Josei Gaku Nenpo, 9 (1988); Toshio Sumimoto, Senryo Hiroku (Mainichi Shinbunsha, Tokyo, 1952).
58. Fujin Mondai Shiryo Shusei, vol. 1, Jinken (Domesu Shuppan, 1978), pp. 535-6.
59. 'Press Release', 2 April 1946; Record Group #25, Box #1, Folder #21, MacArthur Archives and Library.
60. 'Venereal Disease Control in Army Air Force Personnel, From Pacific Air Command, U.S. Army to Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers', 21 November 1946; AG 726.1 Sur-1. #2191, File: Solicitation of the Troops for the Purpose of Prostitution, SCAP Records. There were several memos of similar content in this file.
61. 'Check Sheet from Legal Section to Government Section, Regarding Bill for the Punishment of Prostitution and Related Activities', 15 June 1948; #2191, File: Solicitation of the Troops for the Purpose of Prostitution, SCAP Records.
62. 'Memorandum for Imperial Japanese Government, Inclosure 3', #9321, File: Summary Report: VD Control; October 1945-December 1949, SCAP Records.
63. 'Venereal Disease Indoctrination Course, General Headquarters, Far East Command', December 1947; #9370, File: VD Control, 1947-1948, SCAP Records.
64. Again a comparable case of sexual regulation and subsequent protest against the treatment of local women could be found in British India. See, for example, Burton, Burdens of History. In the case of British India, the controversy surrounding sexual regulation led to feminist mobilisation among British women.
65. #2191, File: Solicitation of the Troops for the Purpose of Prostitution, and #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records. Also see Hussey Papers, Reel 9, 82B, National Diet Library, Tokyo, Japan.
66. 'Information Report from Miss Renko Takekawa', CI&E, 5 December 1946; #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records.
67. 'Round-up of Prostitutes', #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records, and 'Report on Conference on Connection with the Round-up of Japanese Women for VD Examination, Check Sheet from CI&E to GS', 5 December 1946, Hussey Papers, Reel 9, 82B.
68. 'Report of Actual Circumstances: Japanese Movie and Stage Workers Union', Hussey Papers, Reel 9, 82B.
69. 'Round-up of Prostitutes, Interview with Miss Sakakibara et al.', 29 November 1946; #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records.
70. The Yoshiwara had been well known as a 'pleasure district' since before the war. It was the place where organised and licensed prostitution was concentrated. The name Yoshiwara had been associated with sexual immorality in the minds of many Japanese. Obviously, being taken to such a place was an added insult for these women.
71. 'Round-up of Prostitutes', #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records.
72. 'Report in Conference in Connection with the Round-up of Japanese Women for VD Examinations, Check Sheet from CI&E to GS', 5 December 1946, Hussey Papers, Reel 9, 82B.
73. 'Memorandum for the Record, Alleged Maladministration of V.D. Control by Japanese Police and Unwarranted Interference by Military Police', GS, 6 February 1947; #2191, File: Solicitation of the Troops for the Purpose of Prostitution, SCAP Records.
74. 'Memorandum for the Chief, GS, Petition of Various Japanese Organizations with Respect to Handling of Women', Hussey Papers, Reel 9, 82B.
75. 'Rally to Protest Round-ups', #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records.
76. 'Rally to Protect Women', #5250, File: Prostitution, SCAP Records.
77. 'Petition to General MacArthur', Hussey Papers, Reel #9, 82B.
78. 'Petition Concerning the Control of Prostitution, From Chief, Oita Liaison and Coordination Office, To the Commanding Officer, Oita Military Government Team', 4 December 1948; #9936, File: VD Control, Staff Visits, SCAP Records. The content is very similar to that of the Ikebukuro case that I have discussed. This suggests that indiscriminate round-ups continued to take place even after the protest rally in 1946 and outside the Tokyo area.
79. Japanese Women's Christian Temperance Organization, 'Fuuki Ni Taisuru Ikensho', Fuji n Shinpo, 563 (1946).
80. Among many studies that examine the volatile process of sexual encounter involving indigenous women and colonial men, see Ann Stoler, 'Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia', in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1991), and ' Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and Boundaries of Rule', in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas Dirks (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1992). Sexual liaison between 'coloured' women and white men and their bi-racial offspring constantly threatened the boundaries between the colonisers and the colonised, and colonial administration had to spend enormous amounts of time and energy in attempting (but often failing) to maintain the categories of colonisers and colonised distinct. My own focus is on how a similar process occurred among and was perceived by the occupied.
81. Among many studies that examine the volatile process of sexual encounter involving indigenous women and colonial men, see Ann Stoler, 'Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia', in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1991), and ' Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and Boundaries of Rule', in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas Dirks (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1992). Sexual liaison between 'coloured' women and white men and their bi-racial offspring constantly threatened the boundaries between the colonisers and the colonised, and colonial administration had to spend enormous amounts of time and energy in attempting (but often failing) to maintain the categories of colonisers and colonised distinct. My own focus is on how a similar process occurred among and was perceived by the occupied.
82. 'Survey Series: The Japanese People Look At Prostitution', 30 June 1949; #9321, File: Summary Report: VD Control, October 1945-December 1949, SCAP Records.
83. Fuuki Ni Tsuiteno Seron (Opinions on Public Morality), conducted by the National Public Opinion Survey Center in 1953, and published by the newly created Women's and Minors' Bureau, the Labor Ministry.
84. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
85. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
86. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
87. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
88. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
89. Examples include the following: Yoji Watanabe, Gaisho No Shakaigakuteki Kenkyu (Rankosha, Tokyo, 1950); Hiroshi Minami, 'Pan Pan No Sekai', Kaizo, 30 (1949); Etsuji Sumitani, 'Gaisho No Jittai', Josei Kaizo, 29 (1950); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Kanpan Ni Agatta Ran Pan', Kaizo, 34 (1953); Ikutaro Shimizu, 'Kanashimubeki Henken Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953); Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Motto Hokorio: Kichi To Teiso No Kiki Ni Tsuite', Fujin Koron, 39 (1953).
90. Hiroshi Minami, 'Sengo Nihon Ni Okeru Baishofu No Tokushitsu', Fujin No Seiki, 8 (1949).
91. Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Shiro To Kuro', Fujin Koron (1953); Kennichi Maki, 'Konketsuji No Mondai', Shakai Jigyo, 36 (1953).
92. Kiyoshi Kanzaki, 'Shiro To Kuro', Fujin Koron (1953); Kennichi Maki, 'Konketsuji No Mondai', Shakai Jigyo, 36 (1953).
93. 'Konketsuji O Dosuruka', Fujin Koron (1953), cites various opinions on the issue collected through survey.
94. Yaeko Nogami, 'Konktesuji O Kofukuna Michi E', Fujin Koron, 37 (1952).
95. McClintock, Imperial Leather, Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline (State University of New York Press, Albany, 1987); Stoler, 'Carnal Knowledge' and 'Rethinking Colonial Categories'.
96. McClintock, Imperial Leather, Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline (State University of New York Press, Albany, 1987); Stoler, 'Carnal Knowledge' and 'Rethinking Colonial Categories'.
97. McClintock, Imperial Leather, Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline (State University of New York Press, Albany, 1987); Stoler, 'Carnal Knowledge' and 'Rethinking Colonial Categories'.