Coalition formation and the regime divide in new democracies: East Central Europe

Comparative Politics

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 85-104

  Grzymala Busse, Anna ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040971839     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422416     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Arend Lijphart, "Measures of Cabinet Durability: A Conceptual and Empirical Evaluation," Comparative Political Studies (July 1984), 265-79.
2. Ian Budge and Michael Laver "Coalition Theory, Government Policy, and Party Policy," in Michael Laver and Ian Budge, eds., Party Policy and Government Coalitions (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), p. 6.
3. Michael Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance and Political Reality: Deductive Models and Cabinet Coalitions in Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham, ed., Coalitional Behaviour in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 41; Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Lawrence Dodd, Coalitions in Parliamentary Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); William Gamson, "A Theory of Coalition Formation," American Sociological Review (1961), 373-82.
4. Michael Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance and Political Reality: Deductive Models and Cabinet Coalitions in Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham, ed., Coalitional Behaviour in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 41; Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Lawrence Dodd, Coalitions in Parliamentary Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); William Gamson, "A Theory of Coalition Formation," American Sociological Review (1961), 373-82.
5. Michael Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance and Political Reality: Deductive Models and Cabinet Coalitions in Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham, ed., Coalitional Behaviour in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 41; Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Lawrence Dodd, Coalitions in Parliamentary Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); William Gamson, "A Theory of Coalition Formation," American Sociological Review (1961), 373-82.
6. Michael Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance and Political Reality: Deductive Models and Cabinet Coalitions in Europe," in Geoffrey Pridham, ed., Coalitional Behaviour in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 41; Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Lawrence Dodd, Coalitions in Parliamentary Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); William Gamson, "A Theory of Coalition Formation," American Sociological Review (1961), 373-82.
7. William Riker, The Theory of Political Coalitions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962); David Baron and John Ferejohn, "Bargaining in Legislatures," American Political Science Review (1989), 1182-1206.
8. William Riker, The Theory of Political Coalitions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962); David Baron and John Ferejohn, "Bargaining in Legislatures," American Political Science Review (1989), 1182-1206.
9. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
10. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
11. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
12. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
13. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
14. See, for example, Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Paul Lewis, "Political Institutionalization and Party Development in Post-communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1996), 779-99; Jack Bielasiak, "Substance and Process in the Development of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 30 (1997), 23-44; Petr Kopecky, "Developing Party Organizations in East-Central Europe," Party Politics (1995), 515-34; Barnabas Racz, "The Socialist-Left Opposition in Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies, 4 (1993), 647-70; Voytek Zubek, "The Fragmentation of Poland's Political Party System," Communist and Post-Communist Studies (March 1993), 47-71.
15. Kaare Strom, "Minority Governments in Parliamentary Democracies," Comparative Political Studies (July 1984), 199-227.
16. Abram de Swaan, Coalition Theories and Cabinet Formation (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1973).
17. See Michael Laver and Kenneth Shepsle, "Government Coalitions and Intraparty Politics," British Journal of Political Science (October 1990), 489-507; Norman Schofield, "Existence of a 'Structurally Stable' Equilibrium for a Non-collegial Voting Rule," Public Choice (1986), 267-84; David Austen-Smith and Jeffrey Banks, "Stable Portfolio Allocations" American Political Science Review (1990), 891-906. Parties can, of course, seek office in order to achieve policy goals.
18. See Michael Laver and Kenneth Shepsle, "Government Coalitions and Intraparty Politics," British Journal of Political Science (October 1990), 489-507; Norman Schofield, "Existence of a 'Structurally Stable' Equilibrium for a Non-collegial Voting Rule," Public Choice (1986), 267-84; David Austen-Smith and Jeffrey Banks, "Stable Portfolio Allocations" American Political Science Review (1990), 891-906. Parties can, of course, seek office in order to achieve policy goals.
19. See Michael Laver and Kenneth Shepsle, "Government Coalitions and Intraparty Politics," British Journal of Political Science (October 1990), 489-507; Norman Schofield, "Existence of a 'Structurally Stable' Equilibrium for a Non-collegial Voting Rule," Public Choice (1986), 267-84; David Austen-Smith and Jeffrey Banks, "Stable Portfolio Allocations" American Political Science Review (1990), 891-906. Parties can, of course, seek office in order to achieve policy goals.
20. Robert McKelvey, "General Conditions for Global Intransitivities in Formal Voting Models," Econometrica (1979), 1085-1111.
21. Ian Budge and Hans Keman, Parties and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
22. Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance," p. 34.
23. Ian Budge, David Robertson, and Derek Hearl, eds., Ideology, Strategy, and Party Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
24. This definition of the regime divide differs from Herbert Kitchelt, Zdenka Mansfeldova, Radoslaw Markowski, and Gabor Toka, Post-Communist Party Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Rather than the type of Communist regime, this approach looks at the history of the interactions between the party and the opposition. In Kitschelt's specification, there should be identical results for Poland and Hungary because of similarities in the regime type.
25. Michael Laver and Kenneth Shepsle, Making and Breaking Governments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 19, 248.
26. Avinash Dixit and Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically (New York: Norton, 1991); Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Mark Franklin and Thomas Mackie, "Familiarity and Inertia in the Formation of Governing Coalitions in Parliamentary Democracies," British Journal of Political Science (July 1983), 275-98; Laver and Shepsle, Making and Breaking Governments, p. 69.
27. Avinash Dixit and Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically (New York: Norton, 1991); Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Mark Franklin and Thomas Mackie, "Familiarity and Inertia in the Formation of Governing Coalitions in Parliamentary Democracies," British Journal of Political Science (July 1983), 275-98; Laver and Shepsle, Making and Breaking Governments, p. 69.
28. Avinash Dixit and Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically (New York: Norton, 1991); Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Mark Franklin and Thomas Mackie, "Familiarity and Inertia in the Formation of Governing Coalitions in Parliamentary Democracies," British Journal of Political Science (July 1983), 275-98; Laver and Shepsle, Making and Breaking Governments, p. 69.
29. Avinash Dixit and Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically (New York: Norton, 1991); Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Mark Franklin and Thomas Mackie, "Familiarity and Inertia in the Formation of Governing Coalitions in Parliamentary Democracies," British Journal of Political Science (July 1983), 275-98; Laver and Shepsle, Making and Breaking Governments, p. 69.
30. Claus Offe, "Capitalism and Democracy by Design? Democratic Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe," Social Research, 59 (Winter 1991), 865-92.
31. All the data on coalitions, party spatial locations, and codings are available from the author.
32. Gabor Toka, "The Hierarchy of Issue Domains in Inter-Party Relations in East Central Europe with a Directional Model of Coalition Formation," paper presented at the meeting of the American Political Science Association, September 3-6, 1998.
33. Budge and Keman, p. 14.
34. To give the greatest chance to the minimum winning coalition hypothesis, I coded simple majority Hungarian coalitions as compliant with its predictions.
35. Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 1 (March 1992), 7-50; Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 3 (1997), 221-54; Voytek Zubek, "The Reassertion of the Left in Post-Communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1994), 801-37; John Huber and Ronald Inglehart, "Expert Interpretations of Party Space and Party Locations in 42 Societies," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 73-111.
36. Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 1 (March 1992), 7-50; Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 3 (1997), 221-54; Voytek Zubek, "The Reassertion of the Left in Post-Communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1994), 801-37; John Huber and Ronald Inglehart, "Expert Interpretations of Party Space and Party Locations in 42 Societies," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 73-111.
37. Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 1 (March 1992), 7-50; Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 3 (1997), 221-54; Voytek Zubek, "The Reassertion of the Left in Post-Communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1994), 801-37; John Huber and Ronald Inglehart, "Expert Interpretations of Party Space and Party Locations in 42 Societies," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 73-111.
38. Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society, 1 (March 1992), 7-50; Radoslaw Markowski, "Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 3 (1997), 221-54; Voytek Zubek, "The Reassertion of the Left in Post-Communist Poland," Europe-Asia Studies, 5 (1994), 801-37; John Huber and Ronald Inglehart, "Expert Interpretations of Party Space and Party Locations in 42 Societies," Party Politics, 1 (January 1995), 73-111.
39. Arend Lijphart, Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).
40. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems"; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Economic Ideology and Political Success," Party Politics (October 1995), 565-78; Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Valerie Bunce and Maria Csanadi, "Uncertainty in Transition: Post-Communists in Hungary," East European Politics and Societies (Spring 1993), 240-73; Maurizio Cotta, "Building Party System after the Dictatorship: The East European Cases in a Comparative Perspective," in Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1994).
41. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems"; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Economic Ideology and Political Success," Party Politics (October 1995), 565-78; Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Valerie Bunce and Maria Csanadi, "Uncertainty in Transition: Post-Communists in Hungary," East European Politics and Societies (Spring 1993), 240-73; Maurizio Cotta, "Building Party System after the Dictatorship: The East European Cases in a Comparative Perspective," in Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1994).
42. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems"; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Economic Ideology and Political Success," Party Politics (October 1995), 565-78; Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Valerie Bunce and Maria Csanadi, "Uncertainty in Transition: Post-Communists in Hungary," East European Politics and Societies (Spring 1993), 240-73; Maurizio Cotta, "Building Party System after the Dictatorship: The East European Cases in a Comparative Perspective," in Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1994).
43. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems"; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Economic Ideology and Political Success," Party Politics (October 1995), 565-78; Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Valerie Bunce and Maria Csanadi, "Uncertainty in Transition: Post-Communists in Hungary," East European Politics and Societies (Spring 1993), 240-73; Maurizio Cotta, "Building Party System after the Dictatorship: The East European Cases in a Comparative Perspective," in Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1994).
44. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems"; Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Economic Ideology and Political Success," Party Politics (October 1995), 565-78; Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Party System and Party Theory in the Transition of Central Europe," Journal of Theoretical Politics (April 1994), 217-38; Valerie Bunce and Maria Csanadi, "Uncertainty in Transition: Post-Communists in Hungary," East European Politics and Societies (Spring 1993), 240-73; Maurizio Cotta, "Building Party System after the Dictatorship: The East European Cases in a Comparative Perspective," in Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1994).
45. Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems."
46. Budge and Keman, p. 44.
47. Zubek, "The Fragmentation," p. 53.
48. The one coalition predicted by both minimum winning coalition and spatial models was the MSzP-SzDSz coalition in Hungary, 5.94-5.98. The four coalitions predicted by all three models were the two ODS-KDU-CSL-ODA coalitions in the Czech Republic, 6.92-6.96 and 6.96-11.97; the VPN-KDH coalition in Slovakia, 6.90-3.91; and the HZDS-SNS coalition in Slovakia, 6.92-3.94 (spatial proximity on the economic dimension only). The six coalitions predicted by both the regime divide and the spatial coalition models were the KLD-PC-UD-OKP coalition in Poland, 1.91-12.91; the PC-PL-SLCh-ZChN-PChD coalition in Poland, 12.91-7.92 (spatial proximity on the world-view dimension only); the OF-KDU-HSD-SMS coalition in the Czech Republic, 6.90-6.92; the HZDS-ZRS-SNS coalition in Slovakia, 10.94-10.98; and the MDF-FKgP-KDNP coalition and the Fidesz-FKgP-MDF coalition in Hungary, 5.90-5.94 and 5.98-(spatial proximity on the world-view dimension only). An additional four coalitions were predicted by the spatial proximity and the regime divide models, but there were noncoalition parties that were just as close to the party that formed the coalition as to the parties that joined it.
49. Replicating the analysis in Kitschelt, Mansfeldova, Markowski, and Toka.
50. Christopher Anderson, "The Dynamics of Public Support for Coalition Governments," Comparative Political Studies, 28 (October 1995), 350-83.
51. Frances Millard, "The Shaping of the Polish Party System, 1989-93," East European Politics and Societies (Fall 1994), 843.
52. Jozef Oleksy, quoted in Zycie Warszawy, Mar. 17, 1993.
53. Jerzy Wiatr, Krotki Sejm (Warsaw: BGW, 1993), p. 35.
54. Five governments were formed and fell in the parliament's first four years, and parliamentary parties were highly unstable.
55. Rzeczpospolita, Sept. 25-26, 1993.
56. Tygodnik Solidarnosc, Aug. 5, 1994. The Freedom Union's leader, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, initially forbade such coalitions with the SLD but revoked this prohibition after coalitions were formed in several cities.
57. For example, it offered to stabilize the government of Hanna Suchocka, but she refused to negotiate with it. Rzeczpospolita, Sept. 3, 1993.
58. Borowik of UP, Sztandar, Mar. 14, 1996.
59. Tryhuna Ludu, Sept. 27, 28, 1993.
60. Wprost, Mar. 22, 1998.
61. Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, Dwa Lata Pracy Parlamentarnej (19-9.1993-19.9.1995) (Warsaw: SLD Parliamentary Club, 1995); Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, Nasz Program dla Polski: Trzy lata Pracy Parlamentarnej SLD (Warsaw: SLD Parliamentary Club, 1996), p. 8.
62. Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, Dwa Lata Pracy Parlamentarnej (19-9.1993-19.9.1995) (Warsaw: SLD Parliamentary Club, 1995); Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, Nasz Program dla Polski: Trzy lata Pracy Parlamentarnej SLD (Warsaw: SLD Parliamentary Club, 1996), p. 8.
63. Marek Borowski, resignation speech, Gazeta Wyborcza, Feb. 7, 1994.
64. For example, in twenty-two out of thirty cases the PSL nominated its own party activists to various posts. The SLD did so in only one out of eight cases. Trybuna, Feb. 7, 1994.
65. Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, Nasz Program dla Polski (1996), p. 15.
66. Attila Agh, "The Hungarian Socialist Party and Party Change," Party Politics, 2 (October 1997), 430.
67. Markowski; Laszlo Szarvas, "Parties and Party-Factions in the Hungarian Parliament," Budapest Papers on Democratic Transition No. 34, Hungarian Electronic Library, 1992.
68. Szonja Szelenyi, Ivan Szelenyi, and Winifred Poster, "Interests and Symbols in Post-Communist Political Culture: The Case of Hungary," American Sociological Review (June 1996), 475.
69. Alfred A. Reisch, "Hungarian Socialist Party Looks Ahead," RFE/RL, Mar. 29, 1991.
70. Ibid., p. 25.
71. Patrick O'Neil, "Revolution from Within: Institutional Analysis, Transitions from Authoritariansims, and the Case of Hungary," World Politics (July 1996), 579-603.
72. The MSzP took nine out of the twelve ministries, leaving internal affairs, culture and education, and transport to the SzDSz.
73. Markowski argues that Fidesz was actually closer to the MSzP. Kitschelt, Mansfeldova, Markowski, and Toka place the SzDSz next to the MSzP on several dimensions.
74. For example, even as he met with the representatives of all the other parliamentary parties, including the right-wing extremist SPR-RSC, Havel refused to meet with the representatives of the KSCM.
75. Dokumenty IV Sjezdu KSCM (Prague: KSCM, 1996), p. 48.
76. Dokumenty II Sjezdu KSCM (Prague, KSCM, 1993), p. 12.
77. Dokumenty II Sjezdu KSCM, p. 10.
78. Including the HSD-SMS, a regional party, Jiri Dienstbier's Civic Movement, and the Czech Socialist Party.
79. Petra Buzkova, in Mlada Fronta Dnes, Jan. 28, 1993.
80. Because of the strict centralization of power in the Czechoslovak Communist party, orders flowed from Prague to the Slovak regional party heads, and Bratislava was largely neglected by party supervision and control commissions. Pockets of reformists survived.
81. Interview with Dusan Dorotin, Bratislava, February 4, 1997; Nove Slovo, July 18, 1991.
82. Narodna Obroda, Feb. 21, 1996.
83. The Alternative of Political Realism and the Alliance of Democrats (which later joined to form the Democratic Union) and the National Democratic Party.
84. Markowski.
85. One major shared constituency of the two parties comprised the "red managers," former party directors who managed newly privatized enterprises. TASR, Daily News Monitor, 3 (October 1994).
86. Kaare Strom, Ian Budge, and Michael J. Laver, "Constraints on Cabinet Formation in Parliamentary Democracies," American Journal of Political Science (May 1994), 303-35.
87. Markowski, p. 233.
88. Laver, "Between Theoretical Elegance," pp. 41-42.
89. Party policy is more responsible for the formation of coalitions than for their stability. Gregory Luebbert, Comparative Democracy: Policy Making and Governing Coalitions in Europe and Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 145-55. Paul Warwick, Government Survival in Parliamentary Democracies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 83, argues that ideological diversity determines cabinet stability.
90. Party policy is more responsible for the formation of coalitions than for their stability. Gregory Luebbert, Comparative Democracy: Policy Making and Governing Coalitions in Europe and Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 145-55. Paul Warwick, Government Survival in Parliamentary Democracies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 83, argues that ideological diversity determines cabinet stability.