The Canadian middle power myth

International Journal

Volumn 55, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 188-205

  Chapnick, Adam ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040951616     PISSN: 00207020     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/40203476     Document Type: Review

References (67)

1. For an early discussion of the theory of middle power status, see David Vital, The Inequality of States: A Survey of the Small Power in International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1967), esp 37.
2. David Mitrany, The Progress of International Government (London: George Allen & Unwin 1933), 118.
3. Wrong to Robertson, Washington, 20 January 1942, in John F. Hilliker, ed, Documents on Canadian External Relations, IX: 1942-43 (Hull PQ: Government of Canada Publishing Centre 1980), 107.
4. For a more detailed description of Wrong and the functional principle see J.L. Granatstein, The Ottawa Men: The Civil Service Mandarins, 1935-1957 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press [1982] 1999).
5. Brooke Claxton, 'The place of Canada in the post-war organization,' Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 10(November 1944), 418.
6. Carsten Holbraad dates the history of middlepowerhood to the writings of Thomas Aquinas (Middle Powers in International Politics [London: Macmillan 1984D. However, the concept had been dormant for years, and aside from a brief mention by General J.C. Smuts in 1918 (The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion [London: Hodder and Stoughton 1918D, it had disappeared from the foreign policy lexicon.
7. Carsten Holbraad dates the history of middlepowerhood to the writings of Thomas Aquinas (Middle Powers in International Politics [London: Macmillan 1984D. However, the concept had been dormant for years, and aside from a brief mention by General J.C. Smuts in 1918 (The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion [London: Hodder and Stoughton 1918D, it had disappeared from the foreign policy lexicon.
8. Denis Stairs, 'Of medium powers and middling roles,' in Ken Booth, ed, Statecraft and Security: The Cold War and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998), 272.
9. Arthur Andrew, The Rise and Fall of a Middle Power: Canadian Diplomacy from King to Mulroney (Toronto: James Lorimer 1993), 25.
10. Economist, 29 May 1943, cited in F.H. Soward, 'On becoming and being a middle power: the Canadian experience,' Pacific Historical Review 32(May 1963), 115.
11. Economist, 29 May 1943, cited in F.H. Soward, 'On becoming and being a middle power: the Canadian experience,' Pacific Historical Review 32(May 1963), 115.
12. Cited in Blair Fraser, 'Canada: mediator or busybody?' in J. King Gordon, ed, Canada's Role as a Middle Power (Toronto: Canadian Institute of International Affairs 1966), 7.
13. Peyton V. Lyon and Brian W. Tomlin, Canada as an International Actor (Toronto: Macmillan 1979), 13.
14. Lionel Gelber, 'Canada's new stature,' Foreign Affairs 24(October 1945-July 1946), 280-1.
15. In R.A. Mackay, ed, Canadian Foreign Policy 1945-1954: Selected Speeches and Documents (Toronto & Montreal: McClelland & Stewart 1971), 6.
16. G.P.deT. Glazebrook, 'The middle powers in the United Nations system,' International Organization 1(June 1947). For a detailed discussion of the various theoretical understandings of 'middle power,' see Adam Chapnick, 'The middle power,' Canadian Foreign Policy 7(winter 2000) (forthcoming).
17. G.P.deT. Glazebrook, 'The middle powers in the United Nations system,' International Organization 1(June 1947). For a detailed discussion of the various theoretical understandings of 'middle power,' see Adam Chapnick, 'The middle power,' Canadian Foreign Policy 7(winter 2000) (forthcoming).
18. Edgar McInnis, 'A middle power in the cold war,' in Hugh L. Keenleyside, et al, eds, The Growth of Canadian Policies in External Affairs (Durham NC: Duke University Press 1960), 147, 161.
19. See John Miller, 'Functionalism and Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Canadian Voting Behaviour in the General Assembly of the United Nations. 1946-1966,' unpublished PhD thesis, McGill University, 1970, 75-100.
20. Defence Liaison Division to Dana Wilgress, 9 July 1952, in Donald Barry, ed, Documents on Canadian External Relations. XVIII: 1952 (Ottawa: External Affairs and International Trade Canada 1990), 1113.
21. R.G. Riddell, 'The role of middle powers in the United Nations,' Department of External Affairs, Statements and Speeches 48/40,1948, 1. Emphasis added.
22. John Holmes, 'Is there a future for middlepowermanship?' in Gordon, ed, Canada's Role as a Middle Power, 14.
23. Paul Painchaud, 'Middlepowermanship as an ideology,' in ibid, 29.
24. Lester B. Pearson, 'Canada's role as a middle power,' in ibid, 202.
25. Vital, The Inequality of States, 8.
26. R.A. Mackay, 'The Canadian doctrine of the middle powers,' in Harvey L. Dyck and H. Peter Krosby, eds, Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1969), 143
27. See, for example, Donald Gordon, 'Canada as peace-keeper,' in King Gordon, Canada's Role as a Middle Power, 51-66.
28. Carsten Holbraad, 'The role of middle powers,' Cooperation and Conflict 7(no 2, 1971), 80.
29. Holbraad, Middle Powers in International Politics, 80-90.
30. Bernard Wood, The Middle Powers and the General Interest (Ottawa: North-South Institute 1988), 19-20.
31. Robert T. Cox, 'Middlepowermanship, Japan, and the future world order,' International Journal 44(autumn 1989) 827.
32. Robert O. Keohane, 'Lilliputians' dilemmas: small states in international politics,' International Organization 23(spring 1969), 296.
33. Holbraad, 'The role of middle powers,' 82-3.
34. Annette Baker Fox, The Politics of Attraction: Four Middle Powers and the United States (New York: Columbia University Press 1977), 2.
35. James Eayrs, 'From middle power to foremost power: defining a new place for Canada in the hierarchy of world power,' International Perspectives (May/June 1975), 15, 20.
36. Lyon and Tomlin, Canada as an International Actor, 12-13.
37. David B. Dewitt and John J. Kirton, Canada as a Principal Power (Toronto: John Wiley 1983), 4, 54.
38. John W. Holmes, 'Most safely in the middle,' International Journal 39(spring 1984), 385.
39. Cranford Pratt, 'Middle power internationalism and global poverty,' in Cranford Pratt, ed, Middle Power Internationalism: The North South Dimension (Kingston & Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1990), 14.
40. Maureen Appel Molot, 'Where do we, should we, or can we sit? A review of Canadian foreign policy literature,' International Journal of Canadian Studies 1-2(spring-autumn 1990), 77-96.
41. Andrew F. Cooper, Richard A. Higgott, and Kim Richard Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order (Vancouver: UBC Press 1993), 16
42. Ibid, 19, 32.
43. Ibid, 180.
44. Geoffrey Hayes, 'Middle powers in the new world order,' Behind the Headlines 51(winter 1993-4), 13.
45. Andrew F. Cooper, 'Niche diplomacy: a conceptual overview,' in Andrew F. Cooper, ed, Niche Diplomacy: Middle Powers after the Cold War (London: Macmillan 1997), 3, 4.
46. Alan K. Henrickson, 'Middle powers as managers: international mediation within, across and outside institutions,' in ibid, 55.
47. Hayes, 'Canada as a middle power: the case of peacekeeping,' in ibid, 73.
48. Kim Richard Nossal and Richard Stubbs, 'Mahathir's Malaysia: an emerging middle power?' in ibid, 150.
49. Louis Bélanger and Gordon Mace, 'Middle powers and regionalism in the Americas,' in ibid, 166.
50. Stairs, 'Of medium powers and middling roles,' 282, 275.
51. The concept of human security is not new. In a House of Commons speech about the functional principle on 4 August 1944, Mackenzie King stated: 'Security from war is indeed essential, but real security requires international action and organization in many fields - in social welfare, in trade, in technical progress, in transportation, and in economic development. The general aim must be to lower the temperature of nationalism, while preserving its good features, and thus to diminish national rivalries and reduce the importance of frontiers.' (Quoted in Mackay, Canadian Foreign Policy 1945-1954, 5.) King emphasized the effect of human ventures in the economy and in social welfare on individual security and de-emphasized the importance of the state as the prime guardian of individual security. Most importantly, he tied human security to elements of the functional principle. King's definition precedes the 1948 Declaration of the Charter of the United Nations, which Jean Daudelain has credited as being the beginning of the concept. See Jean Daudelain, 'Toward human security,' North-South Institute, February, 1998.
52. The concept of human security is not new. In a House of Commons speech about the functional principle on 4 August 1944, Mackenzie King stated: 'Security from war is indeed essential, but real security requires international action and organization in many fields - in social welfare, in trade, in technical progress, in transportation, and in economic development. The general aim must be to lower the temperature of nationalism, while preserving its good features, and thus to diminish national rivalries and reduce the importance of frontiers.' (Quoted in Mackay, Canadian Foreign Policy 1945-1954, 5.) King emphasized the effect of human ventures in the economy and in social welfare on individual security and de-emphasized the importance of the state as the prime guardian of individual security. Most importantly, he tied human security to elements of the functional principle. King's definition precedes the 1948 Declaration of the Charter of the United Nations, which Jean Daudelain has credited as being the beginning of the concept. See Jean Daudelain, 'Toward human security,' North-South Institute, February, 1998.
53. Lloyd Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy Minister of Foreign Affairs to the National Forum,' Montreal, 22 January 1999, http://dfait-maeci.gc.ca/english/news/statements/99_state/99_004.-e.htm (18 February 1999).
54. Lloyd Axworthy and Sarah Taylor, 'A ban for all seasons,' International Journal 53(spring 1998), 190.
55. Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the G-8 foreign ministers' meeting,' 99/40, Cologne, Germany, 9 June 1999, email from bulletins@dfait-maeci.gc.ca (9 June 1999).
56. See Axworthy, 'Canada and human security: the need for leadership,' International Journal 52 (spring 1997), 183-96, and 'Notes,' 99/40.
57. Lloyd Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the Paasikivi Society,' 99/47, Helsenki, Finland, 1 September 1999, e-mail from bulletins@dfait-maeci.gc.ca (2 September 1999); see also Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the Atlantic Diplomatic Forum,' 99/55, St John's, Newfoundland, 5 November 1999, e-mail from bulletins@dfait-maeci.gc.ca (5 November 1999).
58. Lloyd Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the Paasikivi Society,' 99/47, Helsenki, Finland, 1 September 1999, e-mail from bulletins@dfait-maeci.gc.ca (2 September 1999); see also Axworthy, 'Notes for an address by the Honourable Lloyd Axworthy, Minister of Foreign Affairs, to the Atlantic Diplomatic Forum,' 99/55, St John's, Newfoundland, 5 November 1999, e-mail from bulletins@dfait-maeci.gc.ca (5 November 1999).
59. Axworthy, 'Human security: the need for leadership,' 193.
60. These standards are outlined in the Atlantic Diplomatic Forum address.
61. Vital, The Inequality of States, 37.
62. Nossal, 'Foreign policy for wimps,' Ottawa Citizen, 23 April 1998, A19.
63. Fen Osler Hampson and Dean F. Oliver, 'Pulpit diplomacy: a critical assessment of the Axworthy doctrine,' International Journal 53(summer 1998), 381, 388.
64. For further criticisms see Jean-François Rioux and Robin Hay, 'Canadian foreign policy: from internationalism to isolationism?' International Journal 54(winter 1998-9), 57-75; and Kim Richard Nossal, 'Pinchpenny diplomacy: the decline of "good international citizenship" in Canadian foreign policy,' ibid, 88-105.
65. For further criticisms see Jean-François Rioux and Robin Hay, 'Canadian foreign policy: from internationalism to isolationism?' International Journal 54(winter 1998-9), 57-75; and Kim Richard Nossal, 'Pinchpenny diplomacy: the decline of "good international citizenship" in Canadian foreign policy,' ibid, 88-105.
66. Government of Canada, Canada and The World: IV: 'The protection of our security within a stable global framework,' http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/english/foreignp/cnd-world/chap4.htm (18 February 1999). Further elaboration can be found in the address to the Atlantic Diplomatic Forum.
67. Axworthy, 'Notes for an address to the Paasikivi Society.'