Democratization and the domestic sources of foreign policy: Turkey in the 1974 Cyprus crisis

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 116, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 277-303

  Adamson, Fiona B ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040927952     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/798062     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Michael Doyle, "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs," Philosophy and Public Affairs 12 (Summer and Fall 1983): 205-235, 323-353.
2. Edward D. Mansfield and Jack Snyder, "Democratization and the Danger of War," International Security 20 (Summer 1995): 5-38.
3. Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illiberal Democracy," Foreign Affairs 76 (November/December 1997): 22-43.
4. Charles Mohr, "Rejoicing Athenians Chant "Demokratia!," New York Times, 24 July 1974.
5. See, for example, Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-1169; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Bruce Russett, "The Democratic Peace - And Yet It Moves," International Security 19 (Spring 1995): 164-175.
6. See, for example, Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-1169; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Bruce Russett, "The Democratic Peace - And Yet It Moves," International Security 19 (Spring 1995): 164-175.
7. See, for example, Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-1169; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Bruce Russett, "The Democratic Peace - And Yet It Moves," International Security 19 (Spring 1995): 164-175.
8. See, for example, Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-1169; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Bruce Russett, "The Democratic Peace - And Yet It Moves," International Security 19 (Spring 1995): 164-175.
9. Jack S. Levy, "Domestic Politics and War" in Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb, eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989) cited in Sean M. Lynn-Jones, "Preface" in Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1996).
10. Jack S. Levy, "Domestic Politics and War" in Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb, eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989) cited in Sean M. Lynn-Jones, "Preface" in Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1996).
11. Russett, "Grasping the Democratic Peace," 40.
12. Ibid., 30-38; John M. Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 87-125.
13. Ibid., 30-38; John M. Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 87-125.
14. Mansfield and Snyder, "Democratization and War," 22.
15. Ibid., 23.
16. Ibid., 26-30.
17. Ibid., 12.
18. John Oneal and Bruce Russett, "The Classical Liberals Were Right: Democracy, Interdependence, and Conflict, 1950-1985," International Studies Quarterly 41 (June 1997): 267-294; Russett, "Grasping the Democratic Peace," 20; Doyle, "Liberalism and Politics."
19. John Oneal and Bruce Russett, "The Classical Liberals Were Right: Democracy, Interdependence, and Conflict, 1950-1985," International Studies Quarterly 41 (June 1997): 267-294; Russett, "Grasping the Democratic Peace," 20; Doyle, "Liberalism and Politics."
20. John Oneal and Bruce Russett, "The Classical Liberals Were Right: Democracy, Interdependence, and Conflict, 1950-1985," International Studies Quarterly 41 (June 1997): 267-294; Russett, "Grasping the Democratic Peace," 20; Doyle, "Liberalism and Politics."
21. Ted Robert Gurr, Polity II: Political Structures and Regime Change, 1800-1986, Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research No. 9263 (1990).
22. For notable exceptions, see Miriam Fendius Elman, ed., Paths to Peace: Is Democracy the Answer? (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997); and John M. Owen, Liberal Peace, Liberal War: American Politics and International Security (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
23. For notable exceptions, see Miriam Fendius Elman, ed., Paths to Peace: Is Democracy the Answer? (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997); and John M. Owen, Liberal Peace, Liberal War: American Politics and International Security (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
24. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Understanding International Conflicts (New York: Harper Collins, 1993), 40, as cited in Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Peace," 91.
25. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Understanding International Conflicts (New York: Harper Collins, 1993), 40, as cited in Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Peace," 91.
26. For critiques of the statistical support for the democratic peace, see Christopher Layne, "Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 5-49; David E. Spiro, "The Insignificance of the Liberal Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 50-86.
27. For critiques of the statistical support for the democratic peace, see Christopher Layne, "Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 5-49; David E. Spiro, "The Insignificance of the Liberal Peace," International Security 19 (Fall 1994): 50-86.
28. On the use of the process-tracing method, see Alexander George and Timothy McKeown, "Case Studies and Theories of Organizational Decision Making," Advances in Information Processing in Organizations, vol. 2 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1985).
29. Çaǧlar Keyder, "The Political Economy of Turkish Democracy" in Irvin C. Schick and Ertuǧrul Ahmet Tonak, Turkey in Transition: New Perspectives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 27-65.
30. Ahmet Samin, "The Left" in Schick and Tonak, "Turkey in Transition," 147-177.
31. Ahmet Samin, "The Left" in Schick and Tonak, "Turkey in Transition," 147-177.
32. English translations of the names and abbreviations of Turkish political parties are used throughout the text.
33. Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1993), 109-110.
34. Keyder, "Political Economy."
35. Turkey's first wave of democratization occurred in 1946, with competitive elections. Since 1946 Turkey's democratization process has been punctuated by three military coups - 1960, 1971, 1980.
36. Ilkay Sunar and Sabri Sayari, "Democracy in Turkey: Problems and Prospects" in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Lawrence Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Experiences in Southern Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 173.
37. Frank Tachau, Turkey: The Politics of Authority, Democracy, and Development (New York: Praeger, 1984), 122.
38. This is the classical argument made in Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
39. Only 10 percent of high school graduates, for example, were able to continue on to university, thus resulting in a class of frustrated young people. See Keyder, "Political Economy."
40. Cem Eroǧlu, "The Establishment of Multiparty Rule: 1945-1971" in Schick and Tonak, Turkey in Transition, 136.
41. Keyder, "Political Economy," 50.
42. Schick and Tonak, Turkey in Transition, 365.
43. Ergun Özbudun uses Douglas Rae's "index of fractionalization" to measure the degree of fragmentation of votes. The 1973 election was characterized by a large number of parties (seven) and by the highest fragmentation of votes (.767) of all elections from 1950-1977. The two strongest parties won 63.1 percent of the total votes (compared with a range from a low of 71.5 percent in 1961 to a high of 93.2 percent in 1950). Perfect one-party system = 0, Perfect two-party system = .5, fractionalization increases with the approach to 1.0. See Ergun Özbudun, "Turkey" in Myron Weiner and Ergun Özbudun, eds., Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), Index of fractionalization taken from Douglas Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
44. Ergun Özbudun uses Douglas Rae's "index of fractionalization" to measure the degree of fragmentation of votes. The 1973 election was characterized by a large number of parties (seven) and by the highest fragmentation of votes (.767) of all elections from 1950-1977. The two strongest parties won 63.1 percent of the total votes (compared with a range from a low of 71.5 percent in 1961 to a high of 93.2 percent in 1950). Perfect one-party system = 0, Perfect two-party system = .5, fractionalization increases with the approach to 1.0. See Ergun Özbudun, "Turkey" in Myron Weiner and Ergun Özbudun, eds., Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), Index of fractionalization taken from Douglas Rae, Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
45. Richard C. Campany, Jr., Turkey and the United States (New York: Praeger, 1983), 47.
46. Ibid., 42-43.
47. Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Politics of Turkey since 1955" in Norma Salem, ed., Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and its Resolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 64; Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. II, Reform, Revolution and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808-1975 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 416.
48. Tozun Bahcheli, "Cyprus in the Politics of Turkey since 1955" in Norma Salem, ed., Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and its Resolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 64; Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. II, Reform, Revolution and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808-1975 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 416.
49. Ibid., 430.
50. Feroz Ahmad, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-1975 (London: C. Hurst, 1977), 221.
51. Ahmad, "Modern Turkey," 141.
52. Ahmad, Turkish Experiment, 413-414.
53. Ibid., 414.
54. "Big Troubles over a Small Island," Time, 29 July 1974, 31. On Nikos Sampson, see also Parker T. Hart, Two NATO Allies at the Threshold of War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 131; and Tozun Bahcheli, Greek-Turkish Relations Since 1955 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 85.
55. "Big Troubles over a Small Island," Time, 29 July 1974, 31. On Nikos Sampson, see also Parker T. Hart, Two NATO Allies at the Threshold of War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 131; and Tozun Bahcheli, Greek-Turkish Relations Since 1955 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 85.
56. "Big Troubles over a Small Island," Time, 29 July 1974, 31. On Nikos Sampson, see also Parker T. Hart, Two NATO Allies at the Threshold of War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 131; and Tozun Bahcheli, Greek-Turkish Relations Since 1955 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 85.
57. "Greek Gift to Cyprus," New York Times, 16 July 1974. This editorial was reprinted in the Turkish press in Cumhuriyet, 17 July 1974. Also see "Showdown in Cyprus. . .," New York Times, 18 July 1974; "Off Course in Cyprus," New York Times, 19 July 1974; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish Relations," 95.
58. "Greek Gift to Cyprus," New York Times, 16 July 1974. This editorial was reprinted in the Turkish press in Cumhuriyet, 17 July 1974. Also see "Showdown in Cyprus. . .," New York Times, 18 July 1974; "Off Course in Cyprus," New York Times, 19 July 1974; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish Relations," 95.
59. "Greek Gift to Cyprus," New York Times, 16 July 1974. This editorial was reprinted in the Turkish press in Cumhuriyet, 17 July 1974. Also see "Showdown in Cyprus. . .," New York Times, 18 July 1974; "Off Course in Cyprus," New York Times, 19 July 1974; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish Relations," 95.
60. "Greek Gift to Cyprus," New York Times, 16 July 1974. This editorial was reprinted in the Turkish press in Cumhuriyet, 17 July 1974. Also see "Showdown in Cyprus. . .," New York Times, 18 July 1974; "Off Course in Cyprus," New York Times, 19 July 1974; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish Relations," 95.
61. "Greek Gift to Cyprus," New York Times, 16 July 1974. This editorial was reprinted in the Turkish press in Cumhuriyet, 17 July 1974. Also see "Showdown in Cyprus. . .," New York Times, 18 July 1974; "Off Course in Cyprus," New York Times, 19 July 1974; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish Relations," 95.
62. "Greeks Upset by Rumors of Changes in Leadership," New York Times, 23 July 1974.
63. "Turks Try to End Crisis by Diplomacy," ibid., 18 July 1974.
64. "Turkey's Parliament is Briefed About Cyprus at Secret Session," ibid., 19 July 1974.
65. "Big Troubles over a Small Island," Time, 29 July 1974, 34-35.
66. "Premier Ecevit Asserts Coup 'Forced' Decision," New York Times, 20 July 1974.
67. "Big Troubles over a Small Island," 34.
68. "For Turks Going to War: Cheers and Watermelon," New York Times, 22 July 1974.
69. Mehmet Ali Birand, 30 Hot Days (Nicosia: Rustem and Brother, 1985), 22.
70. "Turkey Says Talks Fail to Solve Crisis," New York Times, 21 July 1974.
71. Yilmaz Gümüşbaş, "Dun sabah güneş daha onurlu doǧdu," ["Yesterday morning even the sun rose with more self-respect"], Cumhuriyet, 21 July 1974.
72. Campany, "Turkey and the United States," 52.
73. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 50, 58; "Orduya baǧiş ve yardimlar sürüyor," ["Donations and Help to the Army Continues"], Cumhuriyet, 24 July 1974; "Ordu'ya yardim . . ." ["Help to the army . . ."], Cumhuriyet, 27 July 1974.
74. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 50, 58; "Orduya baǧiş ve yardimlar sürüyor," ["Donations and Help to the Army Continues"], Cumhuriyet, 24 July 1974; "Ordu'ya yardim . . ." ["Help to the army . . ."], Cumhuriyet, 27 July 1974.
75. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 50, 58; "Orduya baǧiş ve yardimlar sürüyor," ["Donations and Help to the Army Continues"], Cumhuriyet, 24 July 1974; "Ordu'ya yardim . . ." ["Help to the army . . ."], Cumhuriyet, 27 July 1974.
76. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 50.
77. "Ecevit: The Poet Premier," Time, 12 August 1974, 29.
78. William Hale, Turkish Politics and the Military (New York: Routledge, 1994), 219.
79. See the 17 August 1974 interview in Bülent Ecevit, Diş Politika [Foreign Policy] (Ankara: Ajans-Türk Matbaacilik Sanayii, 1976), 46.
80. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 28.
81. "I am with You, Democracy Is with You," Time, 5 August 1974, 30; Mohr, "Rejoicing Athenians."
82. "I am with You, Democracy Is with You," Time, 5 August 1974, 30; Mohr, "Rejoicing Athenians."
83. Hart, "Two NATO Allies," 132.
84. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 53.
85. "Ba̧bakan Ecevit: Atina ve Kibris'a da demokrasi ve özgürlük getireceǧimizi tahmin etmiştim," ["Prime Minister Ecevit: I Had Predicted that We Would Bring Democracy and Freedom to both Athens and Cyprus"] Cumhuriyet, 25 July 1974.
86. "I am with You," 33.
87. Juan de Onis, "Turkish Chief Hails Athens Shift As Step to New Era of Freedom," New York Times, 25 July 1974.
88. Ibid., 77-78.
89. See, for example, "Villagers Driven From Cyprus Homes Charge Murder and Rape by Turks," New York Times, 6 August 1974.
90. Craig R. Whitney, "Three-Power Parley on Cyprus Resumes Effort to End Conflict," ibid., 9 August 1974.
91. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 77.
92. "Good Start in Greece," New York Times, 5 August 1974. See also "Looking for Paradise Lost," Time, 2 September 1974, 29; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish," 98.
93. "Good Start in Greece," New York Times, 5 August 1974. See also "Looking for Paradise Lost," Time, 2 September 1974, 29; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish," 98.
94. "Good Start in Greece," New York Times, 5 August 1974. See also "Looking for Paradise Lost," Time, 2 September 1974, 29; and Bahcheli, "Greek-Turkish," 98.
95. Craig R. Whitney, "A Post-Mortem on Geneva Talks," New York Times, 18 August 1974.
96. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 97.
97. "Blunt Voice From Turkey," Time, 26 August 1974, 38.
98. Ahmet Şükrü Esmèr, "Bati, Yunanistan'da Demokrasinin yaşama faturasini, Türkiye'ye ödetmek istiyor," ["The West Wants Turkey to Foot the Bill for the Survival of Greek Democracy"] Cumhuriyet, 11 August 1974, 5.
99. Craig R. Whitney, "Some Progress on Cyprus Is Reported at the Geneva Talks on Peace for Island," New York Times, 12 August 1974.
100. "To Restrain Turkey," ibid., 13 August 1974.
101. "Cyprus Fighting Resumes As Peace Talks Collapse; UN Called Into Session," ibid., 14 August 1974.
102. Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1982), 1188-1193.
103. Dankwart Rustow, Turkey: America's Forgotten Ally (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1987), 96.
104. Laurence Halley, Ancient Affections: Ethnic Groups and Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger, 1985), 56.
105. For a primordialist argument, see Clifford Geertz, "The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States" in Clifford Geertz, ed., Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa (London: Free Press, 1963).
106. For arguments that stress the contemporary political salience of ties based on language, religion, and culture, see Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1986); and Walker Connor, "A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a . . . ," Ethnic and Racial Studies 1 (October 1978): 377-400.
107. For arguments that stress the contemporary political salience of ties based on language, religion, and culture, see Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1986); and Walker Connor, "A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a . . . ," Ethnic and Racial Studies 1 (October 1978): 377-400.
108. Birand, "30 Hot Days," 23.
109. "Ecevit: The Poet Premier," Time, 12 August 1974, 29. See also "Ecevit's 28th July Press Conference" in SWB: Summary of World Broadcasts (Reading, UK: British Broadcasting System, 1974).
110. "Ecevit: The Poet Premier," Time, 12 August 1974, 29. See also "Ecevit's 28th July Press Conference" in SWB: Summary of World Broadcasts (Reading, UK: British Broadcasting System, 1974).
111. See Jack Snyder and Karen Ballentine, "Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas," International Security 21 (Fall 1996): 5-40.
112. Ahmad, cited in Bahcheli, "Cyprus in Turkey," 67.
113. See Mansfield and Snyder, "Democratization and War," 32-33.
114. Michael McFaul, "A Precarious Peace: Domestic Politics in the Making of Russian Foreign Policy," International Security 22 (Winter 1997/98): 34.
115. See Ahmad, "Making Turkey"; Hale, "Turkish Politics"; Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy, and the Military (Berlin; Walter de Gruyter, 1988); Huntington, "Political Order."
116. See Ahmad, "Making Turkey"; Hale, "Turkish Politics"; Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy, and the Military (Berlin; Walter de Gruyter, 1988); Huntington, "Political Order."
117. See Ahmad, "Making Turkey"; Hale, "Turkish Politics"; Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy, and the Military (Berlin; Walter de Gruyter, 1988); Huntington, "Political Order."
118. Halley, "Ancient Affections," 62.
119. Ronald R. Krebs, "Perverse Institutionalism: NATO and the Greco-Turkish Conflict," International Organization 53 (Spring 1999): 343-377.
120. On the role of perceptions, see Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Peace."
121. See Elman, ed., Paths to Peace.