The first panic attack: A neurobiological theory

Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 92-107

  Jake Jacobs, W ^a   Nadel, L ^a  

^a University of Arizona ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BRAIN; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HUMAN; INFANT; LEARNING; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; PANIC; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHOBIA; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; REVIEW;

ADULT; BRAIN; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMANS; INFANT; LEARNING; MODELS, NEUROLOGICAL; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NEURONAL PLASTICITY; PANIC DISORDER; PHOBIC DISORDERS;

EID: 0040884691     PISSN: 11961961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/h0087302     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Anderson, C. A., & Slusher, M. P. (1986). Relocating motivational effects: An examination of the cognitive-motivation debate on attributions for success and failure. Social Cognition, 4, 270-292.
2. Argyle, N. (1988). The nature of cognitions in panic disorder. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 26, 261-264.
3. Asmundson, G. J. G., Sandler, L. S., Wilson, K. G., & Walker, J. R. (1992). Selective attention toward physical threat in patients with panic disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 6, 295-303.
4. Asso, D., & Beech, H. R. (1975). Susceptibility to the acquisition of a conditioned response in relation to the menstrual cycle. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 19, 337-344.
5. Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders. New York: Guilford.
6. Barlow, D. H. & Craske, M. G. (1988). The phenomenology of panic. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological perspectives (pp. 11-35). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Beck, A. T. (1988). Cognitive approaches to panic disorder: Theory and therapy. In S. Rachman & J.D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological perspectives (pp. 91-109). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
8. Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias. New York: Basic Books.
9. Beck, A. T., Laude, R., & Bohnert, M. (1974). Ideational components of anxiety neurosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 31, 319-325.
10. Bergstrom, R. (1969). Electrical parameters of the brain during ontogeny. In R. J. Robinson (Ed.), Brain and early behavior (pp. 15-42). New York: Academic Press.
11. Beritashvili, J. S., & Dzidzishvili, N. (1934). On the studies of microcephalic behavior. Not read, described in Beritashvili, J. S. (1965). (W. T. Liberson Trans.). Neural mechanisms of higher vertebrate behavior (pp. 51-55). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co.
12. Bootzin, R. R., Acocella, J. R. & Alloy, L. B. (1993). Abnormal psychology: Current perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill.
13. Bridgeman, B., & Staggs, D. (1982). Plasticity in human blindsight. Vision Research, 22, 1199-1203.
14. Buglass, D., Clarke, J., Henderson, A. S., Kreitman, N., & Presley, A. S. (1977). A study of agoraphobic housewives. Psychological Medicine, 7, 73-86.
15. Burns, L. E., & Thorpe, C. L. (1977). National survey of agoraphobics. Journal of International Medical Research, Supplements 1(132).
16. Caviness, W. P. (1969). Ontogeny of focal seizures. In H. H. Jasper, A. A. Ward, Jr., & A. Pope (Eds.), Basic mechanisms of the epilepsies (pp. 517-534). Boston, MA: Little Brown.
17. Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Bright, P., & Gallagher, R. (1984). Assessment of fear of fear in agoraphobics: The body sensations questionnaire and the Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 1090-1097.
18. Changeux, J. P., & Mikoshiba, K. (1978). Genetic and epigenetic factors regulating synapse formation in vertebrate cerebellum and neuromuscular junction. Progress in Brain Research, 48, 43-64.
19. Chen, C., Kim, J. J., Thompson, R. F., & Tonegawa, S. (1996). Hippocampal lesions impair contextual fear conditioning in two strains of mice. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 1177-1180.
20. Clark, D. M. (1986). A cognitive approach to panic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 461-470.
21. Clark, D. M. (1988). A cognitive model of panic attacks. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological perspectives (pp. 362-385). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
22. Clark, D. M. (1993). Cognitive mediation of panic attacks induced by biological challenge tests. Advances in Behaviour Research & Therapy, 15, 75-84.
23. Conel, J. L. (1930-1963). The postnatal development of the human neocortex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (Vols. I-VI).
24. Cohen, N. J., & Eichenbaum, H. (1993). Memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal system. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
25. Cowey, A., & Weiskrantz, L. (1971). Contour discrimination in rats after frontal and striate cortical ablations. Brain Research, 30, 241-252.
26. Craske, M. G. (1991). Phobic fears and panic attacks: The same emotional states triggered by different cues? Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 599-620.
27. Davey, G. C. L., de Jong, P. J., & Tallis, F. (1993). UCS inflation in the etiology of a variety of anxiety disorders: Some case histories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 495-498.
28. Davey, G. C. L., & Matchette, G. (1994). Unconditioned stimulus rehearsal and the retention and enhancement of differential "fear" conditioning: Effects of trait and state anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 708-718.
29. Dean, P. (1978). Visual acuity in hooded rats: Effects of superior collicular or posterior neocortical lesions. Brain Research, 156, 17-31.
30. de Kloet, E. R., Oitzl, M. S., & Joëls, M. (1993). Functional implications of brain corticosteroid receptor diversity. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 13, 433-455.
31. Edelman, G. M. (1987). Neural darwinism. New York: Basic Books.
32. Edelman, G. M. (1989). The remembered present: A biological theory of consciousness. New York: Basic Books.
33. Faravelli, C. (1985). Life events preceding the onset of panic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 9, 103-105.
34. Felleman, D. J. & Van Essen, D.C. (1991) Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 1, 1-47.
35. Flechsig, P. (1920). Anatomie des menschlichen Gehirns und Rackenmarks. Leipzig: Georg Thieme.
36. Freud, S. (1919). Obsessions and phobias. Reprinted in Collected papers, Vol 1. London: Hogarth.
37. Garey, L. J. (1984). Structural development of the visual system of man. Human Neurobiology, 3, 75-80.
38. Gelder, M. G., Clark, D. M., & Salkovskis, P. (1993). Cognitive treatment for panic disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 27, 171-178.
39. Gibson, K. R., & Petersen, A.C. (Eds.) (1991). Brain maturation and cognitive development. Comparative and cross-cultural perspectives. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
40. Girden, E., Mettler, F. A., Finch, G., & Culler, E. (1936). Conditioned responses in a decorticate dog to acoustic, thermal, and tactile stimulation. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 21, 367-385.
41. Goldman, P. S. (1971). Functional development of the prefrontal cortex in early life and the problem of neuronal plasticity. Experimental Neurology, 32, 366-387.
42. Goldstein, A. J., & Chambless, D. L. (1978). A reanalysis of agoraphobia. Behavior Therapy, 9, 47-59.
43. Gorn, G. J., Jacobs, W. J., & Mana, M. J. (1987). Observations on awareness and conditioning. In M. Wallendorf & P. F. Anderson (Eds.), Advances in Consumer Research, Vol XIV, 415-416.
44. Hallam, R. S. (1978). Agoraphobia: A critical review of the concept. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 314-319.
45. Hamburger, V. (1975). Cell death in the development of the lateral motor column of the chick embryo. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 160, 535-546.
46. Hawkrigg, J. J. (1975). Agoraphobia. Nursing Times, 71, 1280-1282.
47. Hebb, D. O. (1946). On the nature of fear. Psychological Review, 53, 259-276.
48. Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior. A neuropsychological theory. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
49. Hibbert, G. A. (1984). Ideational components of anxiety: Their origin and content. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 314-319.
50. Horel, J. A., Bettinger, L. A., Royce, G. J., & Meyer, D. R. (1966). Role of neocortex in the learning and relearning of two visual habits by the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 61, 66-78.
51. Humphrey, N. K. (1970). What the frog's eye tells the monkey's brain. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, 3, 324-337.
52. Humphrey, N. K. (1974). Vision in a monkey without visual cortex: A case study. Perception, 3, 241-255.
53. Huttenlocher, P. R. (1979). Synaptic density in human frontal cortex - Developmental changes and effects of aging. Brain Research, 163, 195-205.
54. Huttenlocher, P. R., Courten, C., de Garey, L. J., & Van der Loos, H. (1982). Synaptogenesis in human visual cortex: Evidence of synapse elimination during normal development. Letters, 33, 247-252.
55. Innocenti, G. M. (1981b). Growth and reshaping of axons in the establishment of visual callosal connections. Science, 212, 824-827.
56. Innocenti, G. M. (1981a). The development of interhemispheric connections. Trends in Neuroscience, 4, 142-144.
57. Ivy, G. O., & Killackey, H. P. (1982). Ontogenetic changes in the projection of neocortical neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 2, 735-743.
58. Jacobs, W. J., & Blackburn, J. (1995). A model for Pavlovian Conditioning: Variations in representations of the unconditional stimulus. Integrative Physiology and Behavioral Science, 30, 12-33.
59. Jacobs, W. J., & Nadel, L. (1985). Stress induced recovery of fears and phobias. Psychological Review, 92, 512-531.
60. Jacobs, W. J., & Nadel, N. (In press). Neurobiology of reconstructed memory. Psychology of Public Policy and Law.
61. Jacobs, W. J., Nadel, L., & Hayden V. (1992). Anxiety Disorders. In D. J. Stein & J. Young (Eds.), Cognitive science and clinical disorders (pp. 211-233). San Diego: CA. Academic Press.
62. Jacobson, L. I., Bernal, G., & Lopez, G. N. (1973). Effects of behavioral training on the functioning of a profoundly retarded microcephalic teenager with cerebral palsy and without language or verbal comprehension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 11, 143-145.
63. Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. L., & Tversky, A. (1986). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.
64. Kenardy, J., Evans, L., & Oei, T. P. (1988). The importance of cognitions in panic attacks. Behavior Therapy, 19, 471-483.
65. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237, 1445-1452.
66. Killackey, H., Snyder, M., & Diamond, I. T. (1971). Function of the striate and temporal cortex in the tree shrew. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 74, Monograph Supplements 1.
67. Klein, D. F., & Klein, H. M. (1989). The definition and psychopharmacology of spontaneous panic and phobia. In P. Tyrer (Ed.), Psychopharmacology of anxiety (pp. 135-162). New York: Oxford University Press.
68. Kluver, H. (1941). Visual function after the removal of the occipital lobes. Journal of Psychology, 11, 23-45.
69. Kolb, B., & Fantie, B. (1988). Development of the child's brain and behavior. In C. E. Reynolds (Ed.), Handbook of child and clinical neuropsychology: Issues and techniques of diagnosis, treatment, and training (pp. 17-39). New York: Plenum.
70. Kruglanski, W. W. (1989). Lay epistemics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational bases. New York: Plenum Press.
71. Krull, D. S., & Anderson, C. A. (1996). The process of explanation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 1-5.
72. Langworthy, O. L. (1933). Development of behavior patterns and myelinization of the nervous system in a human fetus and infant. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Pub. 443, Contributions to Embryology, 24, 1-58.
73. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74. Lashley, K. S. (1935). The mechanism of vision, XII. Nervous structures concerned in the acquisition of habits based on reactions to light. Comparative Psychology Monographs, 11, 43-79.
75. Last, C. G., Barlow, D. H., & O'Brien, G. T. (1984). Cognitive changes during in vivo exposure in an agoraphobic. Behavior Modification, 8, 93-113.
76. Last, C. G., Barlow, D. H., & O'Brien, G. T. (1985). Assessing cognitive aspects of anxiety: Stability over time and agreement between several methods. Behavior Modification, 9, 72-93.
77. Last, C. G., O'Brien, G. T., & Barlow, D. H. (1985). The relationship between cognitions and anxiety: A preliminary report. Behavior Modification, 9, 235-241.
78. LeDoux, J. E. (1994). Emotion, memory and the brain. Scientific American, 270, 50-57.
79. LeDoux, J. E., Sakaguchi, A., & Reis, D. J. (1983). Subcortical efferent projections of the medial geniculate nucleus mediate emotional responses conditioned to acoustic stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 683-698.
80. Ley, R. (1985). Agoraphobia, the panic attack and the hyperventilation syndrome. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 79-82.
81. Levis, D. J. (1987). Treating anxiety and panic attacks: The conflict model of Implosive Therapy. Journal of Integrate & Eclectic Psychotherapy, 6, 450-461.
82. Livingston, M., & Hubel, D. (1988). Segregation of form, color, movement, and depth: Anatomy, physiology, and perception. Science, 240, 740-749.
83. Lund, J. S., Boothe, R. G., & Lund, R. D. (1977). Development of neurons in the visual cortex (area 17) of the monkey (Macaca, nemestrina): A Golgi study from fetal day 127 to postnatal maturity. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 176, 149-188.
84. Lupien, S. J., & McEwen, B. S. (1997). The acute effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Integration of animal and human model studies. Brain Research Reviews, 24, 1-27.
85. Mangan, P. A., & Nadel, L. (1990) Development of spatial memory in human infants. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 28, 513.
86. Marks, I. M. (1970). Agoraphobic syndrome (phobic anxiety state). Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, 538-553.
87. Mathews, A. J. (1990). Why worry? The cognitive function of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 455-468.
88. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1986). Discrimination of threat cues without awareness in anxiety states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 131-138.
89. McArthur, L. Z., & Baron, R. (1983). Toward an ecological theory of social perception. Psychological Review, 90, 215-238.
90. McNally, R. J. (1990). Psychological approaches to panic disorder: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 403-419.
91. McNally, R. J. (1994). Panic disorder: A critical analysis. New York: Guilford.
92. McNally, R. J., Foa, E. B., & Donnel, C. D. (1989). Memory bias for anxiety interpretation of threat. Cognitive therapy and Research, 11, 567-581.
93. Merzenich, M. M., & Sameshima, K. (1993) Cortical plasticity and memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 3, 187-196.
94. Metcalfe, J., & Jacobs, W. J. (1996). An interactive hot system/cool system view of memory under stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, 7, 1-6.
95. Metcalfe, J., & Jacobs, W. J. (1998). Emotional memory: The effects of stress on 'cool' and 'hot' memory systems. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Vol. 38. Advances in research and theory (pp. 187-222). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
96. Mineka, S. (1985). Animal models of anxiety-based disorders: Their usefulness and limitations. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 199-244). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
97. Mineka, S., & Cook, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 23-38.
98. Mineka, S., & Hamida, S. B. (1998). Observational and nonconscious learning. In W. T. O'Donohue (Ed.), Learning and behavior therapy (pp. 421-439). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
99. Mullen, M. K. (1994) Earliest recollections of childhood: a demographic analysis. Cognition, 52, 55-79.
100. Nadel, L. (1992). Multiple memory systems: What and why. Special Issue: Memory systems. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 179-188.
101. Nadel, L. (1994). Hippocampus, space, and relations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 490-491.
102. Nadel, L., & Jacobs, W. J. (1996). The role of the Hippocampus in PTSD, panic, and phobia. In N. Kato (Ed.), Hippocampus: Functions and clinical relevance (pp. 455-463). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V.
103. Nadel, L., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1984). Infantile amnesia: A neurobiological perspective. In M. Moscovitch (Ed.), Infant Memory (pp. 145-172). New York: Plenum.
104. Oakley, D. A. (1983). Learning capacity outside neocortex in animals and man: Implications for therapy after brain-injury. In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Animal models of human behavior (pp. 247-266). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
105. O'Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The hippocampus as a cognitive map. London: Oxford University Press.
106. O'Leary, D., Stanfield, B. B., & Cowan, W. M. (1981). Evidence that the early postnatal restriction of the cells of origin of the callosal projection is due to the elimination of axonal collaterals rather than to the death of neurons. Developmental Brain Research, 1, 607-617.
107. Öst, L., Westling, B. E., & Hellström, K. (1993). Applied relaxation, exposure in vivo and cognitive methods in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 383-394.
108. Pasik, P., & Pasik, T. (1971). The visual world of monkeys deprived of striate cortex: Effective stimulus parameters and importance of the accessory optic system. Vision Research Supplement, 3, 419-435.
109. Pennington, N., & Hastie, R. (1991). A cognitive theory of juror decisions making; The story model. Cardozo Law Review, 13, 519-557.
110. Perenin, M. T., & Jeannerod, M. (1975). Residual vision in cortically blind hemifields. Neuropsychologia, 27, 1-7.
111. Perenin, M. T., & Jeannerod, M. (1978). Visual function within the hemianopic field following early cerebral hemidecortication in man. I. Spatial localization. Neuropsychologia, 16, 1-13.
112. Phillips, R. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (1992). Differential contribution of amygdala and hippocampus to cued and contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 106, 274-285.
113. Phillips, R. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (1995). Hippocampus and amygdala interactions in the formation of emotional memories to context. Developmental Psychobiology, 28, 178-178.
114. Poppel, E., Held, R., & Frost, D. (1973). Residual visual function after brain wounds involving the central visual pathways in man. Nature, 243, 295-296.
115. Purpura, D. P. (1976). Structure-dysfunction relations in the visual cortex of preterm infants. In M. A. B. Brazier & F. Coceani (Eds.), Brain dysfunction in infantile febrile convulsions (pp. 223-240). New York: Raven.
116. Purpura, D. P. (1982). Normal and abnormal development of cerebral cortex in man. Neuroscience Research Program Bulletin, 20, 569-577.
117. Rachman, S. J. (1988). Panics and their consequences: A review and prospect. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological perspectives (pp. 259-303). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
118. Rachman, S., Levitt, K., & Lopatka, C. (1987a). Panic: The links between cognitions and bodily symptoms - 1. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 411-423.
119. Rachman, S. J., Levitt, K., & Lopatka, C. (1987b). A simple method for distinguishing between expected and unexpected panics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 149-154.
120. Raymond, J. E., & Leibowitz, H. W. (1985). Reduction of body sway by stimuli imaged within a Cortical Scotoma: A case study. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 26, 1021-1024.
121. Read, S. J., & Miller, L. C. (1993). Rapist or 'regular guy': Explanatory coherence in the construction of mental models of others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 526-540.
122. Reiss, S., & McNally, R. J. (1985). Expectancy model of fear. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (pp. 107-121). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
123. Roth, J. (1959). The phobic-anxiety-depersonalization syndrome. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 52, 587-595.
124. Rudy, J. W., (1993). Contextual conditioning and auditory cue conditioning dissociate during development. Journal of Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 887-891
125. Schacter, D. L., & Moscovitch, M. (1984). Infants, amnesics, and dissociable memory systems. In M. Moscovitch (Ed.), Infant memory (pp. 173-216). New York: Plenum.
126. Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). Memory systems 1994. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
127. Seligman, M. E. P. (1988). Competing theories of panic. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Panic: Psychological perspectives (pp. 321-329). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
128. Seress, L. (1992). Morphological variability and developmental aspects of monkey and human granule cells: Differences between the rodent and primate dentate gyrus. In C. E. Ribak, C. M. Gall, & I. Mody (Eds.), The dentate gyrus and its role in seizures (pp. 3-28). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
129. Shafar, S. (1976). Aspects of phobic illness - A study of 90 personal cases. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 49, 221-236.
130. Snaith, R. P. (1968). A clinical investigation of phobias. British Journal of Psychiatry, 114, 673-698.
131. Sokol, L., Beck, A. T., Greenberg, R. L., Wright, F. D., & Berchick, R. J. (1989). Cognitive therapy for panic disorder: A nonpharmacological alternative. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 711-716.
132. Solyom, L., Beck, P., Solyom, C., & Hugel, R. (1974). Some etiological factors in phobic neurosis. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 19, 69-77.
133. Spear, P. D. (1979). Behavioral and neurophysiological consequences of visual cortex damage: Mechanisms of recovery. In J. J. Sprague & A. N. Epstein (Eds.), Progress in psychobiology and physiological psychology, Vol 8 (pp. 45-90). New York: Academic Press.
134. Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99, 195-231.
135. Sutherland, R. J., & Rudy, J. W. (1989). Configural association theory: The role of the hippocampal formation in learning, memory, and amnesia. Psychobiology, 17, 129-144.
136. Tranel, D., Damasio, A. R., & Damasio, H. (1988). Intact recognition of facial expression, gender and age in patients with impaired recognition of face identity. Neurology, 38, 690-696.
137. Vanderwolf, C. H., & Robinson, T. E. (1981). Reticulo-cortical activity and behavior: A critique of arousal theory and a new synthesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 459-514.
138. Weiskrantz, L, & Cowey, A. (1967). A comparison of the effects of striate cortex and retinal lesion on visual acuity in the monkey. Science, 155, 104-106.
139. Weiskrantz, L., Warrington, E. K., Sanders, M. D., & Marshall, J. (1974). Visual capacity in the hemianoptic field following a restricted occipital ablation. Brain, 97, 709-728.
140. Westling, B. E., & Öst, L. (1993). Relationship between panic attack symptoms and cognitions in panic disorder patients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 7, 181-194.
141. Westphal, C. (1871). Die Agoraphobic: Eine neuropathische Erscheinung. Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 3, 138-161.
142. Wolpe, J., & Rowan, V. C. (1988). Panic disorder: A product of classical conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 441-450.
143. Yakovlev, P. I., & LeCours, A. R. (1967). The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In A. Minkowski (Ed.), Regional development of the brain in early life. Oxford: Blackwell.