US foreign relations in the twentieth century: From world power to global hegemony

International Affairs

Volumn 76, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 25-40

  Dunne, Michael ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040778714     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00117     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. 'The American century', Life 10, 17 Feb. 1941, pp. 61-5. Nothing in this edition of Life prepares the reader for what was to become a frequently cited - if perhaps seldom read - short essay. See, generally, Robert E. Herzstein, Henry R. Luce: a political portrait of the man who created the American century (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994), esp. ch. 16.
2. 'The American century', Life 10, 17 Feb. 1941, pp. 61-5. Nothing in this edition of Life prepares the reader for what was to become a frequently cited - if perhaps seldom read - short essay. See, generally, Robert E. Herzstein, Henry R. Luce: a political portrait of the man who created the American century (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1994), esp. ch. 16.
3. William Thomas Stead, The Americanisation of the world, or the trend of the twentieth century (London: Review of Reviews, 1902). Stead plays a minor part in the recent essay by Geoffrey Best, 'Peace conferences and the century of total war: the 1899 Hague Conference and what came after', International Affairs 75: 3, July 1999, pp. 619-34.
4. William Thomas Stead, The Americanisation of the world, or the trend of the twentieth century (London: Review of Reviews, 1902). Stead plays a minor part in the recent essay by Geoffrey Best, 'Peace conferences and the century of total war: the 1899 Hague Conference and what came after', International Affairs 75: 3, July 1999, pp. 619-34.
5. See the first contribution to this series on 'The third century' by Thomas L. Hughes, 'Liberals, populists, and foreign policy', Foreign Policy 20, Fall 1975, pp. 98-137; cf. Felix Gilbert, 'Bicentennial reflections', in William P. Bundy, ed., Two hundred years of American foreign policy (New York: New York University Press for the Council of Foreign Relations, 1977), pp. 1-19.
6. See the first contribution to this series on 'The third century' by Thomas L. Hughes, 'Liberals, populists, and foreign policy', Foreign Policy 20, Fall 1975, pp. 98-137; cf. Felix Gilbert, 'Bicentennial reflections', in William P. Bundy, ed., Two hundred years of American foreign policy (New York: New York University Press for the Council of Foreign Relations, 1977), pp. 1-19.
7. Stanley R. Sloan, The US role in a New World Order: prospects for George Bush's global vision. Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1991); 'Clinton proposes new agenda for the 21st century' (22 Oct. 1995), USIS Official Text, 24 Oct. 1995.
8. Stanley R. Sloan, The US role in a New World Order: prospects for George Bush's global vision. Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1991); 'Clinton proposes new agenda for the 21st century' (22 Oct. 1995), USIS Official Text, 24 Oct. 1995.
9. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Maiden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
10. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
11. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Maiden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
12. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Maiden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
13. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Maiden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
14. For a representative sample see Harold Evans, The American century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf; London: Jonathan Cape, 1998); David Slater and Peter J. Taylor, eds, The American century: consensus and coercion in the projection of American power (Maiden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1999); A. G. A. Valladão, The twenty-first century will be American (New York and London: Verso, 1998); Donald W. White, The American century: the rise and decline of the United States as a world power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996); Olivier Zunz, Why the American century? (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and, better known in foreign policy-making circles than any of the previous authors, George F. Kennan, At a century's ending: reflections, 1982-1995 (New York and London: Norton, 1996).
15. Loren Baritz, City on a hill: a history of ideas and myths in America (New York and London: John Wiley, 1964); Frederick Merk, Manifest destiny and mission in American history: a reinterpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963); Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer nation: the idea of America's millennial role (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1968); Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest destiny: a study of nationalist expansionism in American history (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935; repr. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963).
16. Loren Baritz, City on a hill: a history of ideas and myths in America (New York and London: John Wiley, 1964); Frederick Merk, Manifest destiny and mission in American history: a reinterpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963); Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer nation: the idea of America's millennial role (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1968); Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest destiny: a study of nationalist expansionism in American history (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935; repr. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963).
17. Loren Baritz, City on a hill: a history of ideas and myths in America (New York and London: John Wiley, 1964); Frederick Merk, Manifest destiny and mission in American history: a reinterpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963); Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer nation: the idea of America's millennial role (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1968); Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest destiny: a study of nationalist expansionism in American history (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935; repr. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963).
18. Loren Baritz, City on a hill: a history of ideas and myths in America (New York and London: John Wiley, 1964); Frederick Merk, Manifest destiny and mission in American history: a reinterpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963); Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer nation: the idea of America's millennial role (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1968); Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest destiny: a study of nationalist expansionism in American history (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935; repr. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963).
19. I have argued this case in two essays for this journal: see 'Hemisphere and globe: the terms of American foreign relations', International Affairs 70: 3, October 1994, pp. 701-20; and 'The history and historiography of American diplomacy: principles, traditions and values', International Affairs 74: 1, January 1998, pp. 165-83. Given the volume of references in those pages, plus the enormity of the material bearing on the present essay, the following pages deliberately avoid the historiographical issues surrounding the debates analysed below. All historiographical work on US foreign relations must begin with Richard D. Burns, ed., Guide to American foreign relations since 1700 (Santa Barbara, CA and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 1983), which is being revised and may be updated by the excellent essays which usually accompany the quarterly issues of Diplomatic History, the journal of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR), who sponsored the Burns Guide. The Spring and Summer 1999 issues of Diplomatic History (vol. 23, nos 2 and 3) contained 'Roundtables' on 'The American century'.
20. I have argued this case in two essays for this journal: see 'Hemisphere and globe: the terms of American foreign relations', International Affairs 70: 3, October 1994, pp. 701-20; and 'The history and historiography of American diplomacy: principles, traditions and values', International Affairs 74: 1, January 1998, pp. 165-83. Given the volume of references in those pages, plus the enormity of the material bearing on the present essay, the following pages deliberately avoid the historiographical issues surrounding the debates analysed below. All historiographical work on US foreign relations must begin with Richard D. Burns, ed., Guide to American foreign relations since 1700 (Santa Barbara, CA and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 1983), which is being revised and may be updated by the excellent essays which usually accompany the quarterly issues of Diplomatic History, the journal of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR), who sponsored the Burns Guide. The Spring and Summer 1999 issues of Diplomatic History (vol. 23, nos 2 and 3) contained 'Roundtables' on 'The American century'.
21. I have argued this case in two essays for this journal: see 'Hemisphere and globe: the terms of American foreign relations', International Affairs 70: 3, October 1994, pp. 701-20; and 'The history and historiography of American diplomacy: principles, traditions and values', International Affairs 74: 1, January 1998, pp. 165-83. Given the volume of references in those pages, plus the enormity of the material bearing on the present essay, the following pages deliberately avoid the historiographical issues surrounding the debates analysed below. All historiographical work on US foreign relations must begin with Richard D. Burns, ed., Guide to American foreign relations since 1700 (Santa Barbara, CA and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 1983), which is being revised and may be updated by the excellent essays which usually accompany the quarterly issues of Diplomatic History, the journal of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR), who sponsored the Burns Guide. The Spring and Summer 1999 issues of Diplomatic History (vol. 23, nos 2 and 3) contained 'Roundtables' on 'The American century'.
22. I have argued this case in two essays for this journal: see 'Hemisphere and globe: the terms of American foreign relations', International Affairs 70: 3, October 1994, pp. 701-20; and 'The history and historiography of American diplomacy: principles, traditions and values', International Affairs 74: 1, January 1998, pp. 165-83. Given the volume of references in those pages, plus the enormity of the material bearing on the present essay, the following pages deliberately avoid the historiographical issues surrounding the debates analysed below. All historiographical work on US foreign relations must begin with Richard D. Burns, ed., Guide to American foreign relations since 1700 (Santa Barbara, CA and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 1983), which is being revised and may be updated by the excellent essays which usually accompany the quarterly issues of Diplomatic History, the journal of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR), who sponsored the Burns Guide. The Spring and Summer 1999 issues of Diplomatic History (vol. 23, nos 2 and 3) contained 'Roundtables' on 'The American century'.
23. Louis A. Pérez, Jr, The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
24. Thomas A. Bailey resurrected the term, arguing that the USA had been a 'world power' since the War for Independence: 'American emergence as a world power: the myth and the verity', Pacific Historical Review 30: 1, 1961, pp. 1-16. Cf. the excellent contemporaneous survey by Richard W. Leopold, The growth of American foreign policy: a history (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), esp. 'Book II: emergence as a world power, 1889-1905', pp. 103-236.
25. Thomas A. Bailey resurrected the term, arguing that the USA had been a 'world power' since the War for Independence: 'American emergence as a world power: the myth and the verity', Pacific Historical Review 30: 1, 1961, pp. 1-16. Cf. the excellent contemporaneous survey by Richard W. Leopold, The growth of American foreign policy: a history (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), esp. 'Book II: emergence as a world power, 1889-1905', pp. 103-236.
26. Thomas A. Bailey resurrected the term, arguing that the USA had been a 'world power' since the War for Independence: 'American emergence as a world power: the myth and the verity', Pacific Historical Review 30: 1, 1961, pp. 1-16. Cf. the excellent contemporaneous survey by Richard W. Leopold, The growth of American foreign policy: a history (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), esp. 'Book II: emergence as a world power, 1889-1905', pp. 103-236.
27. This debate is treated at length by me in a forthcoming article on 'The political historiography of Washington's valedictory' in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography.
28. Archibald Cary Coolidge, The United States as a world power (New York: Macmillan, 1908), esp. pp. 94, 121; John Holladay Latané, America as a world power, 1997-1907. The American nation: a history, vol. 25 (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1907), esp. ch. 15.
29. Archibald Cary Coolidge, The United States as a world power (New York: Macmillan, 1908), esp. pp. 94, 121; John Holladay Latané, America as a world power, 1997-1907. The American nation: a history, vol. 25 (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1907), esp. ch. 15.
30. The classic and exhaustive study is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik, 2 vols (London: Lovat Dickson and Thompson; New York: Macmillan, 1935), summarized in 'The United States and the balance of power', Journal of Politics 3 (November 1941). pp. 401-49.
31. The classic and exhaustive study is Alfred Vagts, Deutschland und die vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik, 2 vols (London: Lovat Dickson and Thompson; New York: Macmillan, 1935), summarized in 'The United States and the balance of power', Journal of Politics 3 (November 1941). pp. 401-49.
32. Though writing of the novel features for a largely non-American readership, John Bassett Moore invariably argued for the eighteenth-century basis of American world power: see Moore, 'The United States as a world-power (1885-1902)', in A. W. Ward et al., eds, The Cambridge modern history, vol. 7: The United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904), pp. 655-88; cf. idem, American diplomacy: its spirit and achievements (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1905). Moore's bête noire, Woodrow Wilson, was another contributor to this volume of the CMH, writing the chapter on 'State rights'(pp. 405-42).
33. Though writing of the novel features for a largely non-American readership, John Bassett Moore invariably argued for the eighteenth-century basis of American world power: see Moore, 'The United States as a world-power (1885-1902)', in A. W. Ward et al., eds, The Cambridge modern history, vol. 7: The United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904), pp. 655-88; cf. idem, American diplomacy: its spirit and achievements (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1905). Moore's bête noire, Woodrow Wilson, was another contributor to this volume of the CMH, writing the chapter on 'State rights'(pp. 405-42).
34. Though writing of the novel features for a largely non-American readership, John Bassett Moore invariably argued for the eighteenth-century basis of American world power: see Moore, 'The United States as a world-power (1885-1902)', in A. W. Ward et al., eds, The Cambridge modern history, vol. 7: The United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904), pp. 655-88; cf. idem, American diplomacy: its spirit and achievements (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1905). Moore's bête noire, Woodrow Wilson, was another contributor to this volume of the CMH, writing the chapter on 'State rights'(pp. 405-42).
35. Arthur S. Link, The higher realism of Woodrow Wilson and other essays (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971), ch. 10.
36. The point can be seen in the classic account by Ruth B. Russell and Jeanette E. Muther, A history of the United Nations Charter: the role of the United States, 1940-194 (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1958). The links between the episodes described in this section are elaborated in Michael Dunne, The United States and the World Court, 1920-1935 (New York: St Martin's; London: Pinter, 1988), esp. chs 6-7, 9.
37. The point can be seen in the classic account by Ruth B. Russell and Jeanette E. Muther, A history of the United Nations Charter: the role of the United States, 1940-194 (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1958). The links between the episodes described in this section are elaborated in Michael Dunne, The United States and the World Court, 1920-1935 (New York: St Martin's; London: Pinter, 1988), esp. chs 6-7, 9.
38. The standard but contentious account is the decades-old study by Robert A. Divine, The illusion of neutrality (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1962).
39. Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr and Joe Alex Morris, eds, The private papers of Senator Vandenberg (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), p. 374: cf. Thomas G. Paterson, On every front: the making and unmaking of the Cold War, rev. edn (New York and London: Norton, 1992).
40. Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr and Joe Alex Morris, eds, The private papers of Senator Vandenberg (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), p. 374: cf. Thomas G. Paterson, On every front: the making and unmaking of the Cold War, rev. edn (New York and London: Norton, 1992).
41. On the limitations of critics of American scholarly nationalism, see 'Isolationism of a kind: two generations of World Court historiography in the United States', Journal of American Studies 21, December 1987, pp. 327-51.
42. William C. Bullitt, The great globe itself: a preface to world affairs (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1946); James Burnham, The struggle for the world (New York: John Day, 1947).
43. William C. Bullitt, The great globe itself: a preface to world affairs (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1946); James Burnham, The struggle for the world (New York: John Day, 1947).
44. Robert L. Beisner, '1898 and 1968: the anti-imperialists and the doves', Political Science Quarterly 85, June 1970, pp. 187-216, analyses the later Great Debate, while he and others do so less explicitly elsewhere: see idem, Twelve against empire: the anti-imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; re-issued with a new preface, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1985); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-imperialism in the United States: the Great Debate, 1898-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Richard E. Welch, Jr, Imperialists vs. anti-imperialists: the debate over expansion in the 18905 (Itasca, IL: Peacock, 1972); idem, Response to imperialism: the United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
45. Robert L. Beisner, '1898 and 1968: the anti-imperialists and the doves', Political Science Quarterly 85, June 1970, pp. 187-216, analyses the later Great Debate, while he and others do so less explicitly elsewhere: see idem, Twelve against empire: the anti-imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; re-issued with a new preface, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1985); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-imperialism in the United States: the Great Debate, 1898-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Richard E. Welch, Jr, Imperialists vs. anti-imperialists: the debate over expansion in the 18905 (Itasca, IL: Peacock, 1972); idem, Response to imperialism: the United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
46. Robert L. Beisner, '1898 and 1968: the anti-imperialists and the doves', Political Science Quarterly 85, June 1970, pp. 187-216, analyses the later Great Debate, while he and others do so less explicitly elsewhere: see idem, Twelve against empire: the anti-imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; re-issued with a new preface, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1985); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-imperialism in the United States: the Great Debate, 1898-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Richard E. Welch, Jr, Imperialists vs. anti-imperialists: the debate over expansion in the 18905 (Itasca, IL: Peacock, 1972); idem, Response to imperialism: the United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
47. Robert L. Beisner, '1898 and 1968: the anti-imperialists and the doves', Political Science Quarterly 85, June 1970, pp. 187-216, analyses the later Great Debate, while he and others do so less explicitly elsewhere: see idem, Twelve against empire: the anti-imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; re-issued with a new preface, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1985); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-imperialism in the United States: the Great Debate, 1898-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Richard E. Welch, Jr, Imperialists vs. anti-imperialists: the debate over expansion in the 18905 (Itasca, IL: Peacock, 1972); idem, Response to imperialism: the United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
48. Robert L. Beisner, '1898 and 1968: the anti-imperialists and the doves', Political Science Quarterly 85, June 1970, pp. 187-216, analyses the later Great Debate, while he and others do so less explicitly elsewhere: see idem, Twelve against empire: the anti-imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968; re-issued with a new preface, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1985); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-imperialism in the United States: the Great Debate, 1898-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Richard E. Welch, Jr, Imperialists vs. anti-imperialists: the debate over expansion in the 18905 (Itasca, IL: Peacock, 1972); idem, Response to imperialism: the United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
49. Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Another "Great Debate": the national interest of the United States', American Political Science Review 46, Dec. 1952, pp. 961-88; and, more generally, idem, In defense of the national interest: a critical examination of American foreign policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951).
50. Hans J. Morgenthau, 'Another "Great Debate": the national interest of the United States', American Political Science Review 46, Dec. 1952, pp. 961-88; and, more generally, idem, In defense of the national interest: a critical examination of American foreign policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951).
51. John Foster Dulles, War or peace (New York: Macmillan, 1953); James Burnham, Containment or liberation? An inquiry into the aims of United States foreign policy (New York: John Day, 1953).
52. John Foster Dulles, War or peace (New York: Macmillan, 1953); James Burnham, Containment or liberation? An inquiry into the aims of United States foreign policy (New York: John Day, 1953).
53. Michael Roskin, 'What "new isolationism"?', Foreign Policy 6, Spring 1972, pp. 118-27.
54. For recent examples from the British press, see the reports of President Clinton's 28th veto (on reductions for foreign aid): Guardian (London), 19 Oct. 1999, p. 4; and, on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, Will Hutton, 'Will it take this to bring America to its senses?', Observer (London), 17 Oct. 1999, p. 29.
55. For recent examples from the British press, see the reports of President Clinton's 28th veto (on reductions for foreign aid): Guardian (London), 19 Oct. 1999, p. 4; and, on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, Will Hutton, 'Will it take this to bring America to its senses?', Observer (London), 17 Oct. 1999, p. 29.
56. The impact of Vietnam was one of the themes which led Daniel Bell to write his important essay on 'The end of American exceptionalism', Public Interest 41, Fall 1975, pp. 193-224, esp. p. 204.
57. William E. Leuchtenburg, In the shadow of FDR: from Harry Truman to Bill Clinton, 2nd rev. edn, updated (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1993), ch. 7.
58. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
59. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
60. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
61. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
62. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
63. Robert F. Turner, 'International law, the Reagan Doctrine, and world peace: going back to the future', Washington Quarterly 11, Autumn 1988, pp. 119-36. See, more generally, Christopher C. DeMuth et al., The Reagan Doctrine and beyond (Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1987); Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: sources of American conduct in the Cold War's last chapter (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 1994); James M. Scott, Deciding to intervene: the Reagan Doctrine and American foreign policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996); and, from inside the Reagan administration, Robert Kagan, A twilight struggle: American power and Nicaragua, 1977-1990 (New York: Free Press, 1996). For the Revolutionary era and George Washington, especially in this context, see Joshua Muravchik, Exporting democracy: fulfilling America's destiny (Washington DC: AEI Press, 1991).
64. Norman A. Graebner, 'An American tradition in foreign affairs', Virginia Quarterly Review 65, Aug. 1989, pp. 600-18, itself a version of an earlier argument by Frank Tannenbaum, 'The American tradition in foreign relations', Foreign Affairs 30, Oct. 1951, pp. 31-50.
65. Norman A. Graebner, 'An American tradition in foreign affairs', Virginia Quarterly Review 65, Aug. 1989, pp. 600-18, itself a version of an earlier argument by Frank Tannenbaum, 'The American tradition in foreign relations', Foreign Affairs 30, Oct. 1951, pp. 31-50.
66. Nathan Tarcov, 'Principle and prudence in foreign policy: the founders' perspective' Public Interest 76, Summer 1984, pp. 45-60; Thomas H. Hughes, 'The twilight of internationalism', Foreign Policy 61, Winter 1985-6, pp. 25-48; Robert W. Tucker, 'Exemplar or crusader? Reflections on America's role', National Interest 5, Fall 1986, pp. 64-75; Tami R. Davis and Sean M. Lynn-Jones, '"Citty upon a Hill"', Foreign Policy 66, Spring 1987, pp. 20-38.
67. Nathan Tarcov, 'Principle and prudence in foreign policy: the founders' perspective' Public Interest 76, Summer 1984, pp. 45-60; Thomas H. Hughes, 'The twilight of internationalism', Foreign Policy 61, Winter 1985-6, pp. 25-48; Robert W. Tucker, 'Exemplar or crusader? Reflections on America's role', National Interest 5, Fall 1986, pp. 64-75; Tami R. Davis and Sean M. Lynn-Jones, '"Citty upon a Hill"', Foreign Policy 66, Spring 1987, pp. 20-38.
68. Nathan Tarcov, 'Principle and prudence in foreign policy: the founders' perspective' Public Interest 76, Summer 1984, pp. 45-60; Thomas H. Hughes, 'The twilight of internationalism', Foreign Policy 61, Winter 1985-6, pp. 25-48; Robert W. Tucker, 'Exemplar or crusader? Reflections on America's role', National Interest 5, Fall 1986, pp. 64-75; Tami R. Davis and Sean M. Lynn-Jones, '"Citty upon a Hill"', Foreign Policy 66, Spring 1987, pp. 20-38.
69. Nathan Tarcov, 'Principle and prudence in foreign policy: the founders' perspective' Public Interest 76, Summer 1984, pp. 45-60; Thomas H. Hughes, 'The twilight of internationalism', Foreign Policy 61, Winter 1985-6, pp. 25-48; Robert W. Tucker, 'Exemplar or crusader? Reflections on America's role', National Interest 5, Fall 1986, pp. 64-75; Tami R. Davis and Sean M. Lynn-Jones, '"Citty upon a Hill"', Foreign Policy 66, Spring 1987, pp. 20-38.
70. See the references at note 7 above.
71. John C. Hulsman, A paradigm for the New World Order: a schook-of-thought analysis of American foreign policy in the post-Cold War era (London: Macmillan; New York: St Martin's, 1997).