White queens at the Chicago world's fair, 1893: New womanhood in the service of class, race, and nation

Gender and History

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 33-81

  Boisseau, T J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AKRON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040778229     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.00171     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Fannie C. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', Chautauquan, 18 (1893), p. 342.
2. This journal is the major organ for the Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle, a (still extant) cross-class organisation devoted to educating the public on social and scientific issues through discussion of contemporary scholarship and research. The Chautauqua movement began in 1874 as a school and summer camp for teachers. According to David Burg, the 'popularity of the Chautauqua movement generated the revival of the Lyceum lecture circuit [which] became a platform for exponents of social reform and exposers of political corruption' (Chicago's White City of 1893, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1976, p. 38).
3. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
4. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
5. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
6. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
7. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
8. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
9. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
10. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
11. The best source for the perspective on the fair which underlies my own thinking is Robert Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984). See also Neil Harris et al. (eds), Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, 1993); James Gilbert, Perfect Cities: Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (Hill & Wang, New York, 1982), pp. 209-34; R. Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Nelson Hall, Chicago, 1979); Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893; John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (Hill & Wang, New York, 1978), pp. 11-28. Earlier academic treatments of the fair include Maurice F. Neufeld, 'The White City: The Beginnings of a Planned Civilization in America', Journal of the Illinois Stute Historical Society (April 1934), pp. 71-93; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, 'Black Man and the "White City": Negroes and the Columbian Exposition, 1893', Phylon (1965), pp. 354-61.
12. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
13. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
14. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
15. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
16. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
17. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
18. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
19. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
20. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
21. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
22. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
23. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
24. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
25. Few scholars have published serious treatments of French-Sheldon. Fleeting mentions of her appear in the following essays and anthologies on travellers: A. Allen, Travelling Ladies: Victorian Adventuresses (Jupiter Books, London, 1980); Susan L. Blake, 'A Woman's Trek: What Difference Does Gender Make?', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Margaret Strobel and Nupur Chaudhuri (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992); Katherine Frank, 'Voyages Out: Nineteenth-century Women Travelers in Africa', in Gender, Ideology and Action, ed. Janet Sharistanian (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986); Michael McCarthy, Dark Continent: Africa as seen by Americans (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1983); Dorothy Middleton, 'Some Victorian Lady Travellers', Geographical Journal, 139 (1973), pp. 65-75; Jeanne Madeline Moore, 'Bebe Bwana', American History Illustrated, 21 (1986), pp. 36-12; Jane Robinson, Wayward Women: A Guide to Women Travellers (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990); Patricia Romero (ed.), Women's Voices on Africa (Marcus Weiner Publishing, New York, 1992); Mary Russell, The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt (Collins, London, 1986); Marion Tinling, Women into the Unknown: A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers (Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1989). Louise Michelle Newman connects French-Sheldon's 'complicity in U.S. and British imperialism' with her status as a 'symbol of feminist independence' in her article, 'Coming of Age, but not in Samoa: Reflections on Margaret Mead's Legacy for Western Liberal Feminism', American Quarterly, 48 (1996), pp. 233-72, p. 253. Newman expands upon her analysis of French-Sheldon in her recent book, White Women's Rights (Oxford University Press, New York, 1999). briefly remark upon French-Sheldon's participation in the 1893 fair in my article, '"They Called Me Bebe Bwana": A Critical Cultural Study of an Imperial Feminist', Signs, 21 (1995), pp. 116-46. The only other scholarly discussion of French-Sheldon's appearance at this event is Jean Madeline Weimann, The Fair Women (Academy Press, Chicago, 1981), pp. 439-42.
26. In the early 1890s, French-Sheldon repeatedly stressed in interviews that her success should not be taken to mean that all women were equally suited to exploration or other such adventurous exploits. Frustrated by what seemed to be a paradox in her presentation, the Chautauquan reporter breezed lightly over the notion: Williams wrote that French-Sheldon 'made one or two astonishing admissions during the conversation; one of which was her belief that exploration is not the forte of woman, because it requires too much self-sacrifice and too great power of command. And yet she made a success of her own undertaking' ('A White Queen', p. 342). Williams implies that French-Sheldon's unwillingness to extend her qualities to all of womanhood was an anomalous position which should be overlooked by readers. I argue in this essay that French-Sheldon's portrayal of new womanhood was infused with the extreme individualism and exceptionalism (the same nation-, race-, and class-exclusive exceptionalism) which permeated the fair's portrayal of new womanhood generally. Contrary to Williams, I conclude that French-Sheldon's restriction of exploratory acumen to a particular type of woman was foundational rather than anomalous to her self-presentation at the fair.
27. This phrase frequently appeared in French-Sheldon's publicity materials. Flyers publicising her lectures can be found among her papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
28. French-Sheldon and her publicist, Henry S. Wellcome, cemented the connection between herself and the much more famous Henry Stanley by referring to French-Sheldon even before she had accomplished her expedition as the 'Lady Stanley' in publicity materials: see 'Mrs. French-Sheldon's Palanquin', Mirror, 2 March 1891, p. 3. The popular London paper Punch applied the appellation to French-Sheldon in a short satirical limerick entitled 'From Darkest Africa' (5 September 1891, p. 5). French-Sheldon certainly was not the first white woman to travel to Africa, but it could be argued that she was the first to visit sub-Saharan Africa for no purpose other than 'exploration' (that is, not as a missionary or the wife of a colonial official). For more on the validity and substance of French-Sheldon's claims to discovery and exploration of Africa, see the author's introduction to Sultan to Sultan by M. French-Sheldon (University of Manchester Press, Manchester, 1999).
29. French-Sheldon and her publicist, Henry S. Wellcome, cemented the connection between herself and the much more famous Henry Stanley by referring to French-Sheldon even before she had accomplished her expedition as the 'Lady Stanley' in publicity materials: see 'Mrs. French-Sheldon's Palanquin', Mirror, 2 March 1891, p. 3. The popular London paper Punch applied the appellation to French-Sheldon in a short satirical limerick entitled 'From Darkest Africa' (5 September 1891, p. 5). French-Sheldon certainly was not the first white woman to travel to Africa, but it could be argued that she was the first to visit sub-Saharan Africa for no purpose other than 'exploration' (that is, not as a missionary or the wife of a colonial official). For more on the validity and substance of French-Sheldon's claims to discovery and exploration of Africa, see the author's introduction to Sultan to Sultan by M. French-Sheldon (University of Manchester Press, Manchester, 1999).
30. See, for examples, Nation, 12 January 1893, and Critic, 1 April 1893.
31. See, for examples, Nation, 12 January 1893, and Critic, 1 April 1893.
32. See, for instance, New York Times, 22 March 1892, 3 July 1892, 11 December 1892, 19 December 1892.
33. This is a title of one of many stock lectures French-Sheldon listed as part of her repertoire.
34. Historians such as Alan Trachtenberg view the fair as ushering in a new culture based on spectacle (see note 99). Estimates of attendance at the fair place the number of tickets sold at twenty-six million representing possibly twelve million attendees (at a time when the nation's population did not exceed seventy million).
35. New woman first appeared in the British press in the mid-1890s as a derogatory label for middle-class women who seemed to violate the doctrine of 'separate spheres' (see note 23). Middle-class women who aspired to professionalism, engaged in athleticism, critiqued the institution of marriage, decried the sexual double-standard, or eschewed confining clothing on semi-political grounds were vulnerable to the charge of being 'new women'.
36. In Beyond Separate Spheres (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982), Rosalind Rosenberg cites Sydney Grundy's 1894 play The New Woman as the original source of the label (p. 54), while Ellen Jordan argues in 'The Christening of the New Woman', Victorian Newsletter (Spring 1983), that it was coined by a literary critic named Ouida in May 1894, who was responding to Sarah Grand's essay 'The New Aspect of the Woman Question', published earlier that spring. Quoted by Ann Ardis, New Women, New Novels (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1990), pp. 10-11, 179n.
37. In Beyond Separate Spheres (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982), Rosalind Rosenberg cites Sydney Grundy's 1894 play The New Woman as the original source of the label (p. 54), while Ellen Jordan argues in 'The Christening of the New Woman', Victorian Newsletter (Spring 1983), that it was coined by a literary critic named Ouida in May 1894, who was responding to Sarah Grand's essay 'The New Aspect of the Woman Question', published earlier that spring. Quoted by Ann Ardis, New Women, New Novels (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1990), pp. 10-11, 179n.
38. In Beyond Separate Spheres (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982), Rosalind Rosenberg cites Sydney Grundy's 1894 play The New Woman as the original source of the label (p. 54), while Ellen Jordan argues in 'The Christening of the New Woman', Victorian Newsletter (Spring 1983), that it was coined by a literary critic named Ouida in May 1894, who was responding to Sarah Grand's essay 'The New Aspect of the Woman Question', published earlier that spring. Quoted by Ann Ardis, New Women, New Novels (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1990), pp. 10-11, 179n.
39. In Beyond Separate Spheres (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982), Rosalind Rosenberg cites Sydney Grundy's 1894 play The New Woman as the original source of the label (p. 54), while Ellen Jordan argues in 'The Christening of the New Woman', Victorian Newsletter (Spring 1983), that it was coined by a literary critic named Ouida in May 1894, who was responding to Sarah Grand's essay 'The New Aspect of the Woman Question', published earlier that spring. Quoted by Ann Ardis, New Women, New Novels (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1990), pp. 10-11, 179n.
40. G. Brown Goode, Assistant Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution at the time and in charge of overall classification of exhibits at the fair, wrote that the fair would illustrate 'the steps of progress of civilization and its arts in successive centuries, and in all lands up to the present time', that it would become, 'in fact, an illustrated encyclopedia of civilization', that its very essence was to educate and 'formulate the Modern' (quoted in Rydell, All the World's A Fair, pp. 44-5; emphasis his).
41. Trachtenberg asserts that 'what the fair would proclaim, is that America represents the world, is itself the world's heritage, itself the "emancipation of man"' (The Incorporation of America, pp. 208-9).
42. A similar point is made by Lisa Tickner in her study of the World War I images of British women in the service of the state which, she argues, served to provide a temporarily effective, yet ultimately problematic, iconography for British feminists to rally around. See The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign, 1907-1914 (Chatto & Windus, London, 1987).
43. Trachtenberg, p. 221; Gail Bederman, Masculinity and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 32-5.
44. See Linda Kerber, 'The Republican Mother - Women and the Enlightenment: An American Perspective', American Quarterly, 28 (1976), pp. 187-205.
45. See Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere: Women's Work and Culture at the World's Fairs of 1876, 1893, and 1904' (unpub. PhD diss., New York University, 1989), and Weimann, The Fair Women, pp. 1-4.
46. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
47. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
48. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
49. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
50. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
51. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr
52. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
53. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
54. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
55. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
56. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
57. Except for Hazel Carby's ground-breaking essay, 'On the Threshold of "Woman's Era": Lynching, Empire, and Sexuality in Black Feminist Theory', in 'Race', Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985) and Gail Bederman's more recent analysis of Ida B. Wells's role at the fair, '"Civilization", the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)', Radical History Review, 52 (1992), pp. 5-30, and Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, which focus on representations of racialised masculinity, academic treatments of women at the Columbian Exposition more typically emphasise the racist exclusionary practices of the organisers of the Woman's Building which kept African-American women marginalised: Ann Massa, 'Black Women in the 'White City," Journal of American Studies, 8 (1974), pp. 319-37; Erlene Stetson, 'A Note on the Woman's Building and Black Exclusion', Heresies, 2 (1979). Or, they generally acclaim white women's contributions: Weimann, The Fair Women; Terree Grabenhorst-Randall, 'The Woman's Building', Heresies, 1 (1978), pp. 44-6; Duncan R. Jamieson, 'Women's Rights at the World's Fair, 1893', Illinois Quarterly, 37 (1974), pp. 5-20; Joelynn Snyder-Ott, 'Woman's Place in the Home (that she built)', Feminist Art Journal, 3 (1974), pp. 7-8. For succinct critiques of this literature, see Nancy Cott's review of Weimann, 'An Experiment of Women, 1893', New York Times Book Review, 19 July 1981, p. 15, and Elaine Kendall's review of the same, 'A Sad Look at 19th century Women', Los Angeles Times, 16 July 1981, p. 14. Exceptions to this rule include Frances K. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (1982), pp. 289-311; and Mary Frances Cordato, 'Representing the Expansion of Woman's Sphere'. I would like to thank Robert Rydell for suggesting several of these references to me.
58. Bederman concludes from such coverage that the fair women failed to 'prove that women and men had contributed equally to the advancement of civilization', Manliness and Civilization, p. 34.
59. The expression belongs to Jeanne Madeleine Weimann and is meant to refer to both the female fair organisers and exhibitors.
60. A 'cult of true womanhood' among white, middle-class women of the nineteenth century was first identified by Barbara Welter, 'The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860', American Quarterly, 18 (1966). According to Welter, the 'cult' idealised middle-class women, restricting them to a wholly domestic and private sphere and attributing to them an exclusive relationship to the morality and purity associated with that sphere. The cult demanded respectable women's near-total exclusion from the public domain (where market forces and character traits such as avariciousness, aggression, and individualism predominated). In The Bonds of Womanhood: 'Woman's Sphere' in New England, 1780-1835 (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1977), Nancy Cott noted the capacity of this doctrine of separate spheres, based on an even earlier 'canon of domesticity', to enshrine a 'unifying, leveling common identity of the domestic "American lady" (not the aristocratic lady)', providing many middle-class American women with a sense of 'solidarity with their sex' (p. 99).
61. A 'cult of true womanhood' among white, middle-class women of the nineteenth century was first identified by Barbara Welter, 'The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860', American Quarterly, 18 (1966). According to Welter, the 'cult' idealised middle-class women, restricting them to a wholly domestic and private sphere and attributing to them an exclusive relationship to the morality and purity associated with that sphere. The cult demanded respectable women's near-total exclusion from the public domain (where market forces and character traits such as avariciousness, aggression, and individualism predominated). In The Bonds of Womanhood: 'Woman's Sphere' in New England, 1780-1835 (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1977), Nancy Cott noted the capacity of this doctrine of separate spheres, based on an even earlier 'canon of domesticity', to enshrine a 'unifying, leveling common identity of the domestic "American lady" (not the aristocratic lady)', providing many middle-class American women with a sense of 'solidarity with their sex' (p. 99).
62. For a contemporary source, see William Graham Sumner, 'Earth Hunger', Yale Review, 3 (1896), pp. 3-32. The standard historical works which address this issue include Walter LaFeber, The New Empire (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963), and R. W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960).
63. For a contemporary source, see William Graham Sumner, 'Earth Hunger', Yale Review, 3 (1896), pp. 3-32. The standard historical works which address this issue include Walter LaFeber, The New Empire (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963), and R. W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960).
64. For a contemporary source, see William Graham Sumner, 'Earth Hunger', Yale Review, 3 (1896), pp. 3-32. The standard historical works which address this issue include Walter LaFeber, The New Empire (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963), and R. W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960).
65. Frederick Jackson Turner's speech, 'The Significance of the Frontier in American History', constitutes one of the most notable and often commemorated events of the fair. His speech is reprinted in The Frontier in American History (Henry Holt, New York, 1920); see also 'The Problem of the West', Atlantic (1896), pp. 289-97. Though Turner was not a personal advocate of US expansion beyond its continental borders, it should be recognised that his ideas as expressed at the World's Fair supplied pro-annexationists soon after with evidence to support their view that the United States should engage in formal colonisation efforts in such places as Hawaii, Cuba, and the Philippines.
66. Frederick Jackson Turner's speech, 'The Significance of the Frontier in American History', constitutes one of the most notable and often commemorated events of the fair. His speech is reprinted in The Frontier in American History (Henry Holt, New York, 1920); see also 'The Problem of the West', Atlantic (1896), pp. 289-97. Though Turner was not a personal advocate of US expansion beyond its continental borders, it should be recognised that his ideas as expressed at the World's Fair supplied pro-annexationists soon after with evidence to support their view that the United States should engage in formal colonisation efforts in such places as Hawaii, Cuba, and the Philippines.
67. Notably, and not unrelated to the main arguments of this study, the French word feminism was coined the same year that the fair took place, yet I hesitate to use it without qualification since the term was not employed at the fair itself and did not appear in the American or British press for another two decades. See Karen Offen, 'On the French Origin of the Words, Feminism and Feminist', Feminist Issues (1988), pp. 45-51. I have chosen to use proto-feminist instead, my argument being that the early years of the 1890s mark a period of embryonic ideological changes which resulted in the next generation's adoption of new vocabulary to express support for gender reform or egalitarianism. On the pitfalls of referring to the nineteenth-century rhetoric of woman's emancipation as feminist, see Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1987), pp. 3-50.
68. Notably, and not unrelated to the main arguments of this study, the French word feminism was coined the same year that the fair took place, yet I hesitate to use it without qualification since the term was not employed at the fair itself and did not appear in the American or British press for another two decades. See Karen Offen, 'On the French Origin of the Words, Feminism and Feminist', Feminist Issues (1988), pp. 45-51. I have chosen to use proto-feminist instead, my argument being that the early years of the 1890s mark a period of embryonic ideological changes which resulted in the next generation's adoption of new vocabulary to express support for gender reform or egalitarianism. On the pitfalls of referring to the nineteenth-century rhetoric of woman's emancipation as feminist, see Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1987), pp. 3-50.
69. President Bertha Palmer's diary entry, as quoted in Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 564.
70. The ground-breaking work regarding these aspects of American national identity in this period is that of Charles Beard, 'The Myth of the Rugged Individual', Harper's Magazine, 164 (1931), pp. 13-22.
71. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', 1893, p. 342.
72. Weimann claims that the 'great event of the season was the event given for the Infanta Eulalia', the Queen of Spain's representative, and the highest ranking royal personage to visit the fair. See The Fair Women; The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World's Columbian Exposition, ed. Ida B. Wells (Chicago, 1892), pp. 559-60.
73. French-Sheldon neglected to mention the contribution made by her close friend, Henry S. Wellcome (a wealthy innovator of pharmaceutical products and aficionado of African exploration), to the design and construction of her palanquin, instead taking full credit for it at the fair and in public interviews for the next forty years.
74. The speech appears as 'An African Expedition' by Mrs May French Sheldon, FRGS, in The Congress of Women, Held in the Woman's Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, U.S.A., 1893, ed. Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (C. Westley, Denver, Colorado, 1894), pp. 131-4. French-Sheldon vociferously supported an 'anti-imperial' method of colonisation, whereby nations sought to garner economic control over others and increased profits through the acceleration and monopolisation of regional trade and the fostering of economic dependency. Furthermore, French-Sheldon spoke in favour of the creation of 'vocational training facilities' with the idea that Africans should be incorporated into a global economy dominated by Euro-American industrialists. Yet, it should be noted that, in the first decade of the twentieth century, French-Sheldon also publicly and vigorously defended King Leopold of Belgium's more direct, militaristic tactics in the region of the Congo.
75. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', p. 344.
76. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', p. 342.
77. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', p. 342.
78. Rider Haggard, She (1887). French-Sheldon ensured that readers of her narrative would make the association when she remarked in Sultan to Sultan that she had been detained a short while in the same port where Haggard had spent time gathering material for his book. See French-Sheldon, Sultan to Sultan, p. 56.
79. Rider Haggard, She (1887). French-Sheldon ensured that readers of her narrative would make the association when she remarked in Sultan to Sultan that she had been detained a short while in the same port where Haggard had spent time gathering material for his book. See French-Sheldon, Sultan to Sultan, p. 56.
80. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at the World's Fair', p. 342.
81. Marianna Togovnick, Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1990).
82. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (Pantheon, New York, 1981).
83. On Victorian beliefs regarding the evolutionary development of gender distinctions, see Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1989). On neurasthenia, see F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1987).
84. On Victorian beliefs regarding the evolutionary development of gender distinctions, see Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1989). On neurasthenia, see F. G. Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 1870-1910 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1987).
85. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, pp. 23-31.
86. Dolores Janiewski helpfully explores the maternalism intrinsic to late nineteenth-century American female reformers' relations with women deemed primitive in her article, 'Giving Women a Future: Alice Fletcher, the "Woman Question", and Indian Reform', repr. in Visible Women, ed. Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock (University of Illinois, Urbana, 1993), pp. 325-10.
87. For a thorough discussion of intellectuals' contradictory thinking about the issue of colonialism and an extra-continental American empire in the 1890, see Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1963).
88. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 132.
89. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 132.
90. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at die World's Fair', p. 343. Many Victorian travellers to Africa focused on what they viewed as African gluttony and lack of eating utensils and the necessity of Westerners setting good examples for Africans to follow. For a relevant discussion of the gendered issues surrounding the modelling of bourgeois table manners, see Helen Callaway, 'Dressing for Dinner in the Bush: Rituals of Self-Definition and British Imperial Authority', in Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning, ed. Ruth Barnes and Joanne B. Eicher (Berg, New York, 1992).
91. Williams, 'A "White Queen" at die World's Fair', p. 343. Many Victorian travellers to Africa focused on what they viewed as African gluttony and lack of eating utensils and the necessity of Westerners setting good examples for Africans to follow. For a relevant discussion of the gendered issues surrounding the modelling of bourgeois table manners, see Helen Callaway, 'Dressing for Dinner in the Bush: Rituals of Self-Definition and British Imperial Authority', in Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning, ed. Ruth Barnes and Joanne B. Eicher (Berg, New York, 1992).
92. See William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (Dell Publishing, New York, 1959), for a classic discussion of these debates.
93. For an in-depth discussion of the controversies in the 1890s surrounding Henry Morton Stanley's and other East African explorers' tendencies toward unacceptable violence and racism, see Tim Youngs, Travellers in Africa: British Travelogues, 1850-1900 (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1994).
94. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 133.
95. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 133.
96. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 133.
97. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 134.
98. Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 252. Annie Coombs demonstrates the multiple and divergent uses to which the subject of African polygamy was put in both 'anti-imperial' and imperial propagandistic writing in Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular Imagination in Late Victorian and Edwardian England (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994), p. 41 n. 70.
99. Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 252. Annie Coombs demonstrates the multiple and divergent uses to which the subject of African polygamy was put in both 'anti-imperial' and imperial propagandistic writing in Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular Imagination in Late Victorian and Edwardian England (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994), p. 41 n. 70.
100. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 134.
101. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 134.
102. French-Sheldon, 'An African Expedition', p. 131.
103. For more on this subject, see William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960); Elizabeth Fee, 'The Sexual Politics of Victorian Social Anthropology', in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner (Octagon Books, New York, 1976); Anita Levy, Other Women: The Writing of Class, Race, and Gender, 1832-1898 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991).
104. For more on this subject, see William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960); Elizabeth Fee, 'The Sexual Politics of Victorian Social Anthropology', in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner (Octagon Books, New York, 1976); Anita Levy, Other Women: The Writing of Class, Race, and Gender, 1832-1898 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991).
105. For more on this subject, see William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960); Elizabeth Fee, 'The Sexual Politics of Victorian Social Anthropology', in Clio's Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women, ed. Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner (Octagon Books, New York, 1976); Anita Levy, Other Women: The Writing of Class, Race, and Gender, 1832-1898 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991).
106. 'Minutes of the First Session', The Official Manual of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission, September 19, 1890 to September 9, 1891 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1891), p. 149.
107. Rydell, All the World's a Fair, p. 40. The prevailing view of the fair among scholars follows Rydell in seeing it as 'an exercise in educating the nation on the concept of progress as a willed national activity toward a determined, utopian goal' and as successfully compelling 'millions of Americans [to] understand the ensuing decades of social struggle and imperial adventure as an integral part of the evolutionary process that accompanied progress' (pp. 46 and 71).
108. The phrase 'the order of things' is meant to remind readers of Michel Foucault's formulation of power/knowledge in his The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (Vintage Books, New York, 1973) and to acknowledge that it is this theorisation of power and ideology which underlies my thinking regarding ideological production at the fair. More to the point, my use of this phrase refers to the fact that many architects and organisers of the fair viewed the fair as a demonstration of both an evident and an ideal 'order of things', and that many historians since have utilised the notion of an 'object lesson' as a framework for understanding the fair's most basic themes.
109. Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893, p. xiii.
110. An important primary source for the fair is the Official Directory of the World's Columbian Exposition May 1 to October 30, 1893 (Conkey, Chicago, 1893).
111. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
112. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
113. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
114. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
115. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
116. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
117. Official historical records of the fair do not overlook the Woman's Building as much as they give brief, condescending accounts of it. These include Ben C. Truman et al., History of the World's Fair (H. W. Kelley, Philadelphia, 1893); George Ade et al., The Chicago Record's History of the World's Fair (Chicago Daily News Co., Chicago, 1893); Rossiter Johnson (ed.), A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (Appleton & Co., New York, 1898). However, several informative official histories specifically concern the Woman's Building, the Board of Lady Managers, and the Congress of Women. These include Maud Howe Elliot (ed.), Art and Handicraft in the Woman's Building of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 (Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894); Official Record of the Board of Lady Managers of the World's Columbian Commission (Chicago, 1890); Mary Kavanaugh Oldham Eagle (ed.), Congress of Women (Beezley, Chicago, 1894); Mary Wright Scwall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, (2 vols, Rand-McNally, Chicago, 1894).
118. Unlike Robert Rydell's PhD dissertation, 'All the World's a Fair: American International Expositions, 1876-1916' (University of California, Los Angeles, 1980), in which he discusses the Woman's Building, Rydell's published chapter on world's expositions omits mention of it and the role that gender played at the 1893 fair. This is also true of James Gilbert's work. Although Reid Badger and David Burg include significant treatments of the Woman's Building, gender does not play a central role in their analyses. Alan Trachtenberg goes so far as to state that 'images implied and stated of blacks and Indians served the total pedagogy. No social image served more significantly, however, than that of women. This was the moment, as the Fair proclaimed, when women (like artists) came into their own.' Yet, Trachtenberg only devotes two paragraphs to demonstrating his point and circumscribes the importance of gender politics at the fair in the process. Trachtenberg concludes that 'the prevailing note' of the Woman's Building 'was domesticity' and that this undercut any political 'militancy' otherwise imparted at the Congress of Women (pp. 221-2).
119. This theme was repeatedly stressed; for instance, an explicit statement of just this idea was made by Lucinda Stone in her speech 'Higher Lessons of the World's Fair', reprinted in Eagle, The Congress of Women.
120. Quoted in Sewall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, vol. 1, p. 8, and reprinted in Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?'
121. Quoted in Sewall (ed.), World's Congress of Representative Women, vol. 1, p. 8, and reprinted in Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?'
122. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
123. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
124. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
125. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
126. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
127. For the impact that national women's clubs organised as a prelude and an aftermath of the 1893 World's Fair had on the suffrage movement and progressive reform, see Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (Holmes and Meier, New York, 1980); Ruth Bordin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1981); Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870-1920 (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981); Estelle B. Freedman, 'Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution-Building and American Feminism, 1870-1930', Feminist Studies, 5 (1979), pp. 512-29; Weimann's chapter on 'Organizations', in The Fair Women, pp. 487-521; and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1991), pp. 128-35, 142.
128. Quoted in Truman, History of the World's Fair, p. 177.
129. Truman, History of the World's Fair, p. 177.
130. Quoted in Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893, p. 247.
131. See note 26.
132. Helen L. Bullock, 'Power and Purposes of Women', in Eagle, Congress of Women.
133. The analogy appears in most women's comments on woman's participation at the fair, in one form or another. See, for instance, Virginia C. Meredith, 'Woman's Part at the World's Fair', Review of Reviews, 7 (1893), pp. 417-19: 'In the Columbian Exposition which celebrates a fifteenth-century fact, the Board of Lady Managers stands for a nineteenth-century idea … [Its creation] may surely be considered a signal illustration of progress in the New World'. This same article cites comments by Ellen M. Henrotin (a member of the Board of Lady Managers) from an article for Cosmopolitan in which she claimed that the exhibition of women's work at the fair signalled a 'revolution [not only] in women's position, but in modern civilization'. See also Frances Willard, 'Women's Department of the World's Fair', in William E. Cameron, The World's Fair, Being a Pictorial History of the Columbian Exposition (Chicago Publication and Lithograph Company, Chicago, 1894), pp. 448-70.
134. The analogy appears in most women's comments on woman's participation at the fair, in one form or another. See, for instance, Virginia C. Meredith, 'Woman's Part at the World's Fair', Review of Reviews, 7 (1893), pp. 417-19: 'In the Columbian Exposition which celebrates a fifteenth-century fact, the Board of Lady Managers stands for a nineteenth-century idea … [Its creation] may surely be considered a signal illustration of progress in the New World'. This same article cites comments by Ellen M. Henrotin (a member of the Board of Lady Managers) from an article for Cosmopolitan in which she claimed that the exhibition of women's work at the fair signalled a 'revolution [not only] in women's position, but in modern civilization'. See also Frances Willard, 'Women's Department of the World's Fair', in William E. Cameron, The World's Fair, Being a Pictorial History of the Columbian Exposition (Chicago Publication and Lithograph Company, Chicago, 1894), pp. 448-70.
135. By 'sect', Samantha meant her own sex - the use of dialect makes a punning allusion to religious groups. See Marietta Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair - by Josiah Allen's Wife (Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1893), p. 279.
136. Frances Willard, 'Woman's Department of the World's Fair', The World's Fair, Being a Pictorial History of the Columbian Exposition (Chicago Publication and Lithograph Co., Chicago, 1894), pp. 452-3.
137. Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair, pp. 244-5.
138. Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair, p. 284.
139. Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair, p. 281.
140. Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair, p. 307.
141. Holley, Samantha at the World's Fair, pp. 305-6.
142. Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 261.
143. Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 263.
144. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', p. 302.
145. Pohl, 'Historical Reality or Utopian Ideal?', p. 302.
146. In fact, all of the European commissions sent to the Woman's Building were royal ones.
147. Palmer's use of the term 'pathetic' to indicate the letters' ability to elicit sympathy would not have carried the extremely pejorative implications we associate with the term today.
148. Quoted in Truman, History of the World's Fair, p. 182.
149. For the seminal work on the notion of time as anthropological othering device, see Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (Columbia University Press, New York, 1983).
150. Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 564.
151. Weimann quotes from an enclosure in a letter held by the Records of the Mint, National Archives, Washington, DC. This letter is from E. C. Leech, director of the Mint, to Caroline Peddle, the young sculptor whom President Palmer favoured to design the Isabella Commemorative Quarter, and is dated 8 April 1893. See Weimann, The Fair Women, pp. 478-84. See also 'The Isabella Quarter Dollar', in American Journal of Numismatics, 28 (1893).
152. Weimann quotes from an enclosure in a letter held by the Records of the Mint, National Archives, Washington, DC. This letter is from E. C. Leech, director of the Mint, to Caroline Peddle, the young sculptor whom President Palmer favoured to design the Isabella Commemorative Quarter, and is dated 8 April 1893. See Weimann, The Fair Women, pp. 478-84. See also 'The Isabella Quarter Dollar', in American Journal of Numismatics, 28 (1893).
153. The next US coin with a face of a woman upon it would be the Susan B. Anthony quarter. This fact supports my point that the fair marked only the beginning of a period when feminist heroines were to be designated national symbols by the US government.
154. Weimann has painstakingly chronicled the many rifts within the Board of Lady Managers and the Isabellas in The Fair Women. However, Weimann's research showcases the fair women's abundant use of queen imagery without attempting to analyse their striking reliance upon it. In fact, Weimann repeats without irony the theme of queenliness throughout her work. For example, her first chapter is titled 'Queen of the West' in reference to Chicago as an appropriate venue for the fair, inasmuch as it comprised the 'seat of empire'.
155. Class-specific reasons for Palmer's dismissal of Perestrello are evident in Regina Maney's article 'The Wife of Columbus', excerpted in The Columbian Woman, ed. Mrs Rollin A. Edgerton (published under the direction of a Lady Manager, n.d.), Archives of the Chicago Historical Association.
156. Quoted in Weimann, The Fair Women, p. 56.
157. Quoted in Truman, History of the World's Fair, p. 182.
158. Comments made by Mary Oldham Eagle upon the occasion of the unveiling of President Palmer's portrait at the closing ceremonies. Quoted in Eagle, The Congress of Women, p. 817.
159. Queen imagery continues to echo even in twentieth-century accounts of Palmer and the Board of Lady Managers. The quotation comes from a biography of Palmer by Ishbel Ross, Silhouette in Diamonds: The Life of Mrs. Potter Palmer (Harper and Bros., New York, 1960), p. 100.
160. Frances Willard, 'Women's Department of the World's Fair', p. 448.
161. Alan Trachtenberg argues that the 'White City implied not only a new form of urban experience but a new way of experiencing the urban world: spectacle', The Incorporation of America-, p. 231.
162. In the opinion of Benjamin Truman, a disproportionate number of visitors attended the Woman's Building events and 'no event of the Exposition except the official opening produced more transport than the formal dedication of the Woman's Building' (History of the World's Fair, p. 173).