Heroic tale, game, and business deal? Western metaphors in action in Kosovo

Quarterly Journal of Speech

Volumn 88, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 50-68

  Kuusisto, Riikka ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

Author keywords

Kosovo; Metaphors; Peace and conflict studies; Rhetoric of war; Western foreign policy

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040669674     PISSN: 00335630     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00335630209384359     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. The understanding of foreign policy, in general, is metaphorical through and through. Everyday concepts and discourse differ slightly from the thinking of foreign policy theorists, policy makers, and politicians, but the continuity is more important than the difference and there is no evidence to suggest that secret (vs. public) communications employ different terms. See Paul A. Chilton and George Lakoff, "Foreign Policy by Metaphor," in Language and Peace, eds. Christina Schäffner and Anita L. Wenden (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999), 37-59.
2. Ronald H. Carpenter, "General Douglas MacArthur's Oratory on Behalf of Inchon: Discourse That Altered the Course of History," Southern Communication Journal 58 (Fall 1992): 1-12.
3. Moya Ann Ball, Vietnam-on-the-Potomac (New York, Westport, and London: Praeger, 1992).
4. Kathleen M. German, "Invoking the Glorious War: Framing the Persian Gulf Conflict Through Directive Language," Southern Communication Journal 60 (Summer 1995): 292-302; Gordon R. Mitchell, "Placebo Defense: Operation Desert Mirage? The Rhetoric of Patriot Missile Accuracy in the 1991 Persian Gulf War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 86 (May 2000): 121-145.
5. Kathleen M. German, "Invoking the Glorious War: Framing the Persian Gulf Conflict Through Directive Language," Southern Communication Journal 60 (Summer 1995): 292-302; Gordon R. Mitchell, "Placebo Defense: Operation Desert Mirage? The Rhetoric of Patriot Missile Accuracy in the 1991 Persian Gulf War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 86 (May 2000): 121-145.
6. Robert L. Ivie, "Metaphor of Force in Prowar Discourse: The Case of 1812," Quarterly Journal of Speech 68 (August 1982): 240-253.
7. Robert L. Ivie, "Images of Savagery in the American Justifications for War," Communication Monographs 47 (November 1980): 279-294; Robert L. Ivie, "Presidential Motives for War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (October 1974): 337-345.
8. Robert L. Ivie, "Images of Savagery in the American Justifications for War," Communication Monographs 47 (November 1980): 279-294; Robert L. Ivie, "Presidential Motives for War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (October 1974): 337-345.
9. Paul A. Chilton, Security Metaphors (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); Robert L. Ivie, "Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of the Cold War Idealists," Communication Monographs 54 (June 1987): 165-182; Robert L. Ivie, "Speaking 'Common Sense' about the Soviet Threat: Reagan's Rhetorical Stance," Western Journal of Speech Communication 48 (Winter 1984): 39-50; Martin J. Medhurst et al., Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology (New York, Westport, and London: Greenwood Press, 1990).
10. Paul A. Chilton, Security Metaphors (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); Robert L. Ivie, "Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of the Cold War Idealists," Communication Monographs 54 (June 1987): 165-182; Robert L. Ivie, "Speaking 'Common Sense' about the Soviet Threat: Reagan's Rhetorical Stance," Western Journal of Speech Communication 48 (Winter 1984): 39-50; Martin J. Medhurst et al., Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology (New York, Westport, and London: Greenwood Press, 1990).
11. Paul A. Chilton, Security Metaphors (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); Robert L. Ivie, "Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of the Cold War Idealists," Communication Monographs 54 (June 1987): 165-182; Robert L. Ivie, "Speaking 'Common Sense' about the Soviet Threat: Reagan's Rhetorical Stance," Western Journal of Speech Communication 48 (Winter 1984): 39-50; Martin J. Medhurst et al., Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology (New York, Westport, and London: Greenwood Press, 1990).
12. Paul A. Chilton, Security Metaphors (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); Robert L. Ivie, "Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of the Cold War Idealists," Communication Monographs 54 (June 1987): 165-182; Robert L. Ivie, "Speaking 'Common Sense' about the Soviet Threat: Reagan's Rhetorical Stance," Western Journal of Speech Communication 48 (Winter 1984): 39-50; Martin J. Medhurst et al., Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology (New York, Westport, and London: Greenwood Press, 1990).
13. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
14. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
15. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
16. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
17. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
18. David Campbell, Politics without Principle: Sovereignty, Ethics, and the Narratives of the Gulf War (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1993); David Campbell, National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Karin M. Fierke, "Multiple Identities, Interfacing Games: The Social Construction of Western Action in Bosnia," European Journal of International Relations 2 (1996): 469-497; Riikka Kuusisto, Western Definitions of War in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Frameworks of the United States, British and French Leaden in Action (Saarijärvi: The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, 1999); Riikka Kuusisto, "Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action," Journal of Peace Research 35 (September 1998): 603-620; George Lakoff, "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf," Unpublished Manuscript. University of California at Berkeley: Linguistics Department, 1990.
19. Karin M. Fierke, "The Logics of Kosovo," Paper Prepared for Presentation at the BISA Annual Conference, University of Bradford, U.K., 18-20 December 2000; Nicholas J. Wheeler, "Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention," Paper Prepared to the BISA Annual Conference, University of Bradford, U.K., 18-20 December 2000.
20. Karin M. Fierke, "The Logics of Kosovo," Paper Prepared for Presentation at the BISA Annual Conference, University of Bradford, U.K., 18-20 December 2000; Nicholas J. Wheeler, "Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention," Paper Prepared to the BISA Annual Conference, University of Bradford, U.K., 18-20 December 2000.
21. For studies of the unifying features and subcultures of "the Western culture," see, among others, Johan Galtung, "Towards a Theory of Freedom and Identity: A New Frontier in Peace Research," in Peace Problems: Some Case Studies, ed. Johan Galtung (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1980), 392-428; Johan Galtung, "The New World Intellectual Order: Intellectual Styles around the World," Paper Presented at the Conference "Crossing Boundaries in Science," ZIF, Bielefeld, Germany, 1 October 1993. Giambattista Vico claims that the same fabulous traditions and metaphorical logic are common to all gentile nations. See Giambattista Vico, Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Leon Pompa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 221-226. According to Michael Osbom, die meaning of archetypal metaphors crosses barriers of time and culture, whereas the scope of non-archetypal metaphors is more limited. See Michael Osbom, "Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric: The Light-Dark Family," Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (May 1967): 115-126. Chilton and Lakoff discuss the shared metaphors of the Western tradition such as "time is money" and "life is a journey," but also point to misunderstandings and heated debate about metaphors within a single country, e.g., the "common European house" metaphor in West Germany (Chilton and Lakoff, 37-59). The range of this article does not permit broad generalizations.
22. For studies of the unifying features and subcultures of "the Western culture," see, among others, Johan Galtung, "Towards a Theory of Freedom and Identity: A New Frontier in Peace Research," in Peace Problems: Some Case Studies, ed. Johan Galtung (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1980), 392-428; Johan Galtung, "The New World Intellectual Order: Intellectual Styles around the World," Paper Presented at the Conference "Crossing Boundaries in Science," ZIF, Bielefeld, Germany, 1 October 1993. Giambattista Vico claims that the same fabulous traditions and metaphorical logic are common to all gentile nations. See Giambattista Vico, Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Leon Pompa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 221-226. According to Michael Osbom, die meaning of archetypal metaphors crosses barriers of time and culture, whereas the scope of non-archetypal metaphors is more limited. See Michael Osbom, "Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric: The Light-Dark Family," Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (May 1967): 115-126. Chilton and Lakoff discuss the shared metaphors of the Western tradition such as "time is money" and "life is a journey," but also point to misunderstandings and heated debate about metaphors within a single country, e.g., the "common European house" metaphor in West Germany (Chilton and Lakoff, 37-59). The range of this article does not permit broad generalizations.
23. For studies of the unifying features and subcultures of "the Western culture," see, among others, Johan Galtung, "Towards a Theory of Freedom and Identity: A New Frontier in Peace Research," in Peace Problems: Some Case Studies, ed. Johan Galtung (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1980), 392-428; Johan Galtung, "The New World Intellectual Order: Intellectual Styles around the World," Paper Presented at the Conference "Crossing Boundaries in Science," ZIF, Bielefeld, Germany, 1 October 1993. Giambattista Vico claims that the same fabulous traditions and metaphorical logic are common to all gentile nations. See Giambattista Vico, Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Leon Pompa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 221-226. According to Michael Osbom, die meaning of archetypal metaphors crosses barriers of time and culture, whereas the scope of non-archetypal metaphors is more limited. See Michael Osbom, "Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric: The Light-Dark Family," Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (May 1967): 115-126. Chilton and Lakoff discuss the shared metaphors of the Western tradition such as "time is money" and "life is a journey," but also point to misunderstandings and heated debate about metaphors within a single country, e.g., the "common European house" metaphor in West Germany (Chilton and Lakoff, 37-59). The range of this article does not permit broad generalizations.
24. For studies of the unifying features and subcultures of "the Western culture," see, among others, Johan Galtung, "Towards a Theory of Freedom and Identity: A New Frontier in Peace Research," in Peace Problems: Some Case Studies, ed. Johan Galtung (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1980), 392-428; Johan Galtung, "The New World Intellectual Order: Intellectual Styles around the World," Paper Presented at the Conference "Crossing Boundaries in Science," ZIF, Bielefeld, Germany, 1 October 1993. Giambattista Vico claims that the same fabulous traditions and metaphorical logic are common to all gentile nations. See Giambattista Vico, Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Leon Pompa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 221-226. According to Michael Osbom, die meaning of archetypal metaphors crosses barriers of time and culture, whereas the scope of non-archetypal metaphors is more limited. See Michael Osbom, "Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric: The Light-Dark Family," Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (May 1967): 115-126. Chilton and Lakoff discuss the shared metaphors of the Western tradition such as "time is money" and "life is a journey," but also point to misunderstandings and heated debate about metaphors within a single country, e.g., the "common European house" metaphor in West Germany (Chilton and Lakoff, 37-59). The range of this article does not permit broad generalizations.
25. For studies of the unifying features and subcultures of "the Western culture," see, among others, Johan Galtung, "Towards a Theory of Freedom and Identity: A New Frontier in Peace Research," in Peace Problems: Some Case Studies, ed. Johan Galtung (Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 1980), 392-428; Johan Galtung, "The New World Intellectual Order: Intellectual Styles around the World," Paper Presented at the Conference "Crossing Boundaries in Science," ZIF, Bielefeld, Germany, 1 October 1993. Giambattista Vico claims that the same fabulous traditions and metaphorical logic are common to all gentile nations. See Giambattista Vico, Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Leon Pompa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 221-226. According to Michael Osbom, die meaning of archetypal metaphors crosses barriers of time and culture, whereas the scope of non-archetypal metaphors is more limited. See Michael Osbom, "Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric: The Light-Dark Family," Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (May 1967): 115-126. Chilton and Lakoff discuss the shared metaphors of the Western tradition such as "time is money" and "life is a journey," but also point to misunderstandings and heated debate about metaphors within a single country, e.g., the "common European house" metaphor in West Germany (Chilton and Lakoff, 37-59). The range of this article does not permit broad generalizations.
26. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980), e.g., 3.
27. George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), xi-xii and 1-8.
28. Lakoff and Johnson, 147-94.
29. George Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987).
30. Lakoff, Metaphor and War.
31. Kuusisto, Western Definitions, 179-92.
32. Studies oriented in a less positivistic or behavioralist, more discursive or deconstructionist manner started appearing in the field of international relations in the late 1980s, early 1990s. See, e.g., James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro, eds., International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (New York and Toronto: Lexington Books, 1989); Sakari Hänninen and Kari Palonen, eds., Texts, Contexts, Concepts: Studies on Politics and Power in Language (Jyväskylä: The Finnish Political Science Association, 1990).
33. Studies oriented in a less positivistic or behavioralist, more discursive or deconstructionist manner started appearing in the field of international relations in the late 1980s, early 1990s. See, e.g., James Der Derian and Michael J. Shapiro, eds., International/Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (New York and Toronto: Lexington Books, 1989); Sakari Hänninen and Kari Palonen, eds., Texts, Contexts, Concepts: Studies on Politics and Power in Language (Jyväskylä: The Finnish Political Science Association, 1990).
34. Chaïm Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation (Notre Dame: The University of Notre Dame Press, 1971), 398-405.
35. Chaïm Perelman, The Realm of Rhetoric (Notre Dame: The University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), 114-25.
36. Kenneth Burke, A Grammar of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969), 503-7.
37. Lakoff and Johnson divide the metaphors we use to give meaning to the surrounding world into three groups: orientational, ontological, and structural. By orientational metaphors they refer to the expressions that organize and evaluate societal and cultural notions and phenomena by giving them a spatial orientation such as up-down, front-back, or in(side)-out(side) (Lakoff and Johnson, 21-4). Ontological metaphors create independent entities, boundaries, and substances where none previously existed. With the help of ontological or physical metaphors, abstract ideas and qualities receive an essence and limits, a surface to cover them, and a space to occupy, i.e., they are made physically present (Lakoff and Johnson, 25-34). Orientational metaphors in action have been examined by Richard W. Leeman, "Spatial Metaphors in African-American Discourse," Southern Communication Journal 60 (Winter 1995): 165-180.
38. Lakoff and Johnson, 3-9 and 61-8.
39. The special nature of metaphors as bridges between discrete domains is explicated also by Kyösti Pekonen and Keith L. Shimko (Kyösti Pekonen, Symbolinen modernissa politiikassa (Jyväskylä: Jyväskylän yliopisto, 1991); Keith L. Shimko, "Metaphors and Foreign Policy Decision-Making," Political Psychology 15 (1994): 655-671).
40. The special nature of metaphors as bridges between discrete domains is explicated also by Kyösti Pekonen and Keith L. Shimko (Kyösti Pekonen, Symbolinen modernissa politiikassa (Jyväskylä: Jyväskylän yliopisto, 1991); Keith L. Shimko, "Metaphors and Foreign Policy Decision-Making," Political Psychology 15 (1994): 655-671).
41. Lakoff and Johnson, 5.
42. Perelman, 114-9.
43. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 371-5.
44. Burke, Grammar, 504-5.
45. Lakoff and Johnson, 136.
46. Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "Political Rationalities and Technologies of Government," in Texts, Contexts, Concepts: Studies on Politics and Power in Language, eds. Sakari Hanninen and Kari Palonen (Jyväskylä: The Finnish Political Science Association, 1990), 166-183.
47. Lakoff and Johnson, 156-8.
48. The "politics as war" metaphor has been studied by David Campbell, Writing Security (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992) and by Dennis K. Mumby and Carole Spitzack, "Ideology and Television News: A Metaphorical Analysis of Political Stories," Central States Speech Journal 34 (Fall 1983): 162-171.
49. The "politics as war" metaphor has been studied by David Campbell, Writing Security (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992) and by Dennis K. Mumby and Carole Spitzack, "Ideology and Television News: A Metaphorical Analysis of Political Stories," Central States Speech Journal 34 (Fall 1983): 162-171.
50. Burke, Grammar, 503-505.
51. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 375-98.
52. Perelman, 114-25.
53. Lakoff and Johnson, 52-5.
54. Chilton and Lakoff, 38.
55. Suzanne M. Daughton, "Metaphorical Transcendence: Images of the Holy War in Franklin Roosevelt's First Inaugural," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (November 1993): 431.
56. Daughton, 436.
57. Once "installed," even rather vague metaphorical scripts can be powerful. In the 1987 General Election in Britain, the "Post World War Two Occupation Script" and the "Bully Script" determined the fate of Neil Kinnock and the Labour Party. See Martin Montgomery, Andrew Toison, and Greg Garton, "Media Discourse in the 1987 General Election: Ideology, Scripts and Metaphors," English Language Research Journal 3 (1989): 173-204.
58. Vico, 223.
59. William J. Clinton, "Radio Address of the President to the Nation," 27 March 1999, 〈http://www.pub.whitehouse. gov/uri-res/12R?urn:pdi:/oma.eop.gov.us/1999/3/29/1.text.1〉 (4 February 2000).
60. Tony Blair, "Article by the Prime Minister, Tony Blair, in the Evening Standard Newspaper, Wednesday 12 May 1999," 13 May 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2412〉 (8 February 2000).
61. "On 24 March, I announced to you, in full agreement with the government, the engagement of French forces, together with our allies, in combat for the defense of justice and human dignity. Today, in Cologne, I am happy to tell you that justice and human dignity-the things we have been fighting for - are close to winning… . thanks to our determinate action, all these battered families will have the possibility of returning to their homes in peace and security… . Thanks to the solidarity of the entire nation, France has been in the forefront of this battle. That was her duty. That was an honor for her." Jacques Chirac, "Déclaration sur le Kosovo de monsieur Jacques Chirac président de la république lors du sommet européen. Cologne, 3 juin 1999," 3 June 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/ actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo84.html〉 (11 February 2000).
62. Madeleine K. Albright, "Statement before the House International Affairs Committee. Washington, D.C., April 21, 1999," 21 April 1999, 〈http://secretary.state.gov/www/statements/1999/990421.html〉 (18 October 1999).
63. Robin Cook, "Article by the Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in the Guardian Newspaper, Wednesday 5 May 1999," 5 May 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2369〉 (4 February 2000).
64. Lionel Jospin, "Intervention de M. Lionel Jospin, Premier ministre, à l'Assemblée nationale, lors des questions au gouvernement, le 23 mars 1999," 23 March 1999, 〈http://www.premier-ministre.gouv.fr/PM/D230399.HTM〉 (21 October 1999).
65. The idea of a brighter future versus a dismal past is related to a whole set of similar dualistic conceptual pairs: light darkness, survival-extermination, sight-blindness, warmth-cold, day-night, known-unknown, safe-vulnerable, hopeful-discouraging. The archetypal nature of the light-dark metaphor family has been exhaustively treated by Michael Osborn (Osborn, 115-26); see also Kathleen Hall Jamieson, "The Metaphorical Cluster in the Rhetoric of Pope Paul VI and Edmund G. Brown," Quarterly Journal of Speech 66 (February 1980): 51-72.
66. William J. Clinton, "Address to the Nation by the President, The Oval Office," 10 June 1999, 〈http:// www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/12R?urn:pdi:/oma.eup.gov.us/1999/6/11/1.text. 1〉 (18 October 1999).
67. Robin Cook, "Statement by the Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in the House of Commons, London, Monday 14 June 1999," 14 June 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2545〉 (15 March 2000).
68. Jacques Chirac, "Entretien du président de la république, M. Jacques Chirac, avec 'TF1', 10 juin 1999," 10 June 1999, 〈http://ww.france.diplomatie.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo102. html〉 (18 October 1999).
69. The power of skillful storytellers, such as Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, to recreate a trustful parent-child relationship and to evoke energizing, emotional responses in their listeners has been discussed by Moya Ann Ball (Ball, 125-6).
70. Hayward R. Alker, Jr., "Fairy Tales, Tragedies and World Histories: Towards Interpretative Story Grammars As Possibilist World Models," Behaviormetrika (1987): 1-28.
71. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
72. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
73. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
74. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
75. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
76. Besides heroic tales, two other story lines frequently are employed in the collective framing of reality: gloomy tragedies and happy comedies; see, e.g., Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1969); Burke, Grammar; or Kenneth Burke, Language As Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966). Humans are by nature story-telling animals who constantly look for links between what happened first and what happened next, between causes and effects, intentions and outcomes. Many studies of the narrative form and content attest to the human desire for "proper" stories, for coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure in life. See, e.g., Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1987); or Katharine Galloway Young, Taleworlds and Storyrealms: The Phenomenology of the Narrative (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987).
77. By claiming that President Milošević was constructed as the dangerous and evil enemy and fairy tale villain, I naturally do not claim that "in reality" his actions did not deserve to be condemned. The point here is that because every metaphor highlights and hides, the association with a children's story dragon, too, underlined certain tentures in President Milošević's behavior and excluded certain policy choices of the Western major powers. It dehumanized the Yugoslav president, glorified the NATO countries, and necessitated the adoption of a forceful solution to the crisis.
78. The risks of blending religious and military rhetoric or metaphors are manifold: intolerance of differences of opinion, dehumanization of the enemy, and limitless powers granted to the "president-priest-commander-in-chief" figure are among the most frightening outcomes (see Daughton).
79. Madeleine K. Albright, "Remarks to Members of the U.S. Armed Forces and Their Families. Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. Tucson, Arizona, May 15, 1999," 18 May 1999, 〈http://secretary.state.gov/www/statements/1999/ 990515.html〉 (3 February 2000).
80. George Robertson, "Edited Transcript of Press Conference Given by the Secretary of State for Defense, George Robertson, Ministry of Defence, London, Thursday 10 June 1999," 10 June 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/ newstext.asp?2535〉 (18 October 2000).
81. "I do not distinguish goals 'from the French point of view.' We perform as a coalition… . Whereas (literally: in a rematch) our determination is total… That is what has permitted Europe to fully play its role in the political process… We demonstrate our collective credibility not only in discussions together, but also when we are put to test." Alain Richard, "Entretien du ministre de la défense, M. Alain Richard, avec le journal 'Le Figaro.' Paris, 27 mars 1999," 27 March 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo23. html〉 (6 February 2000).
82. Madeleine K. Albright, "'NATO Must Continue Air Strikes Until Milosevic Relents.' Op-Ed for 'USA Today'. May 21, 1999," 21 May 1999, 〈http://secretary.state.gov/www/statements/1999/990521.html〉 (3 February 2000).
83. Robin Cook, "Edited Transcript of Interview by the Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, BBC Television, Washington, Friday 21 May 1999," 21 May 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2459〉 (8 February 2000).
84. "But we do not have to accept anything that could deal the cards for Milosevic whose ambition is clearly to drive the Kosovars permanently as far from their homes as possible." Jacques Chirac, "Intervention radiotélévisée du président de la république , M. Jacques Chirac, sur l'évolution de la situation au Kosovo. Paris, 6 avril 1999," 6 April 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo45. html〉 (18 October 1999).
85. William J. Clinton, "Statement by the President, Roosevelt Room," 5 April 1999, 〈http://www.pub.whitehouse. gov/uri-res/12R?urn:pdi:/oma.eop.gov.us/1999/4/5/7.text.1〉 (18 October 1999).
86. Madeleine K. Albright, "Remarks and Q&A Session at The Brookings Institution, National Issues Forum: A New NATO for a New Century. Washington, D.C., April 6, 1999," 6 April 1999, 〈http://secretary.state.gov/www/ statements/1999/990406.html〉 (18 October 1999).
87. Alain Richard, "Réponse du ministre de la défense, M. Alain Richard, à une question d'actuaté à l'Assemblée nationale. Paris, 24 mars 1999," 24 March 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/ kossovo4.html〉 (6 February 2000).
88. Robin Cook, "A Second Message to the Serb People from Robin Cook, British Foreign Secretary. London, Tuesday 27 April 1999," 27 April 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2339) (8 February 2000).
89. Robin Cook, "Edited Transcript of Press Conference by the Foreign Secretary, Mr Robin Look, Ministry of Defence, London, Wednesday 2 June 1999," 2 June 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2498〉 (8 February 2000).
90. Lionel Jospin, "Intervention de M. Lionel Jospin, Premier ministre, lors des questions d'actualité à l'Assemblée nationale sur la situation au Kosovo, 1e 13 avril 1999," 13 April 1999, 〈http://www.premier-mimstre.gouv.tr/PM/ D130499.HTM〉 (18 October 1999).
91. Chilton and Lakoff.
92. Ball.
93. Madeleine K. Albright, "Press Conference on Kosovo. Washington, DC, March 25, 1999," 25 March 1999, 〈http://secretary.state.gov/www/statements/1999/990325a.html〉 (18 October 1999).
94. Robin Cook, "Edited Transcript of Interview by the Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, for BBC R4, Cologne, Germany. Thursday 10 June 1999," 10 June 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2532) (15 March 2000).
95. "We have to continue to make Mr. Milosevic pay the price for his transactions… In addition to our contnbution to the effort of the European Union - amounting to 265 million francs - the State (i.e., France) has appropriated 300 million francs … we are granting economic and financial aid to the countries that have been most affected." Lionel Jospin, "Extraits de la conférence de presse du premier ministre Lionel Jospin en Egypte. Le Caire, 2 mai 1999," 2 May 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomaue.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo63. html〉 (4 February 2000).
96. Clinton, "Statement."
97. Albright, "Brookings Institution."
98. Robin Cook, "Edited Transcript of Interview by the Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, BBC Radio, London, Thursday 25 March 1999," 25 March 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2156〉 (18 October 1999).
99. Tony Blair, "Statement by the Prime Minister, Tony Blair, No 10 Downing Street, London, Thursday 10 June 1999," 10 June 1999, 〈http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?2536〉 (18 October 1999).
100. Lionel Jospin, "Intervention de M. Lionel Jospin, Premier ministre, lors des Questions d'actualité à l'Assemblée nationale, le 27 avril 1999," 27 April 1999, 〈http://www.premier-ministre.gouv.fr/PM/D270499.HTM〉 (18 October 1999).
101. Hubert Védrine, "Entretien du ministre des affaires étrangères, M. Hubert Védrine, avec le journal 'L'humanité'. Paris, 29 avril 1999," 29 April 1999, 〈http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/actual/dossiers/kossovo/kossovo62. html〉 (4 February 2000).
102. Chilton and Lakoff.
103. The Western metaphors in Kosovo bear a remarkable resemblance to those resorted to in the Persian Gulf conflict against Saddam Hussein (Kuusisto, Western Definitions, 166-79).
104. The entailments of the "journey," "building," and "sickness" metaphors - in different contexts such as "life is a journey," "theories are buildings," and "love is sickness" - have been studied by Lakoff and Johnson (Lakoff and Johnson, 46-55 and 87-105).