Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals

Journal of the History of Ideas

Volumn 61, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 415-431

  Wolloch, Nathaniel ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0040516509     PISSN: 00225037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3653921     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
2. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
3. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
4. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
5. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
6. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
7. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
8. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
9. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
10. See Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages (London, 1971); George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1966); Peter Harrison, "The Virtues of Animals in Seventeenth-Century Thought," JHI, 59 (1998), 463-84; Dix Harwood, Love for Animals and How it Developed in Great Britain (New York, 1928); Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1936); Leonora Cohen Rosenfield, From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1968); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World, Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (Harmondsworth, 1984). None of these studies mention Christiaan Huygens's attitude toward animals. See also A. E. Bell, Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1950), 5-96; H. J. M. Bos, "Christiaan Huygens - a Biographical Sketch," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, Invited Papers from the Symposium on the Life and Work of Christiaan Huygens, Amsterdam, 22-25 August 1979 (Lisse, 1980), 7-18; and "Huygens, Christiaan," Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (16 vols. in 8; New York, 1981), VI, 597-613. Neither these, nor any other cited studies, with one unconvincing example (see note 13 below), discuss his attitude toward animals.
11. George Boas, Happy Beast, 1-2, 24-25, 47, 49, referred to theriophily mainly as the use of animals as models for human conduct, so that animals per se are usually not of central importance; but in the present discussion I define "theriophily" and "anti-theriophily" not so much as literary or philosophic genres but rather as moral attitudes toward animals, emphasizing either regard or disregard for their well-being. See also James E. Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity: A Supplementary Account," JHI, 30 (1969), 401-12; and Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (Baltimore, 1997), 389-420.
12. George Boas, Happy Beast, 1-2, 24-25, 47, 49, referred to theriophily mainly as the use of animals as models for human conduct, so that animals per se are usually not of central importance; but in the present discussion I define "theriophily" and "anti-theriophily" not so much as literary or philosophic genres but rather as moral attitudes toward animals, emphasizing either regard or disregard for their well-being. See also James E. Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity: A Supplementary Account," JHI, 30 (1969), 401-12; and Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (Baltimore, 1997), 389-420.
13. George Boas, Happy Beast, 1-2, 24-25, 47, 49, referred to theriophily mainly as the use of animals as models for human conduct, so that animals per se are usually not of central importance; but in the present discussion I define "theriophily" and "anti-theriophily" not so much as literary or philosophic genres but rather as moral attitudes toward animals, emphasizing either regard or disregard for their well-being. See also James E. Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity: A Supplementary Account," JHI, 30 (1969), 401-12; and Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (Baltimore, 1997), 389-420.
14. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
15. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
16. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
17. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
18. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
19. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
20. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
21. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
22. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
23. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
24. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
25. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
26. See Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (Oxford, 1983), 37; J. D. Bleich, "Judaism and Animal Experimentation," Animal Sacrifices, Religious Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia, 1986), 61-114; James Gaffney, "The Relevance of Animal Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical Methodology," ibid., 149-70; Hastings, Man and Beast, 242-43; J. J. MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," Dialogue, 35 (1996), 435-72; Andreas-Holger Maehle, "Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain," Medical History, 34 (1990), 27-51; John Passmore, "The Treatment of Animals," JHI, 36 (1975), 195-218; Political Theory and Animal Rights, eds. Paul A. B. Clarke and Andrew Linzey (London, 1990), 10; Wallace Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes in the Early Animal Experiments of the Royal Society," Annals of Science, 24 (1968), 227-38; and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (New York, 1990), 195-96. For an early example of such a view see Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, tr. Thomas Taylor (London, 1965), 16-17, 139-40. Cf. also Kant, Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield (New York, 1963), 239-41; and Steve Naragon, "Kant on Descartes and the Brutes," Kant-Studien, 81 (1990), 1-23.
27. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
28. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
29. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
30. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
31. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
32. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
33. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
34. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
35. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
36. See J. J. Finkelstein, The Ox that Gored (Philadelphia, 1981), 7, 8, 39, 52; Anita Guerrini, "The Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth-Century England," JHI, 50 (1989), 391-407, esp. 396; Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis," Science, 155 (10 March 1967), 1203-7; and Genesis 1; also Gill, "Theriophily in Antiquity"; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals"; Gaffney, "Relevance of Animal Experimentation," 151; Peter Harrison, "Animal Souls, Metempsychosis, and Theodicy in Seventeenth-Century English Thought," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 31 (1993), 519-44, esp. 519-20; and J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (n.p., 1973), 15-31.
37. See Montaigne, "On Cruelty" and "An Apology for Raymond Sebond," The Complete Essays, tr. M. A. Screech (Harmondsworth, 1991), 472-88 and 489-683.
38. See Pierre Charron, Of Wisdom, tr. anon. (London, before 1612, repr. Amsterdam, 1971), 101-12; and Boas, Happy Beast, 56-61.
39. See Pierre Charron, Of Wisdom, tr. anon. (London, before 1612, repr. Amsterdam, 1971), 101-12; and Boas, Happy Beast, 56-61.
40. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior,́ Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
41. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism,́ Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
42. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
43. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
44. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
45. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
46. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
47. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
48. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
49. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
50. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
51. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method
52. See Descartes's Discourse on Method (1637), V, esp. Discourse on Method and the Meditations, tr. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1968), 73-76. Descartes was probably familiar with the comparison of animals to clocks made by St. Thomas Aquinas, but probably unfamiliar with the sixteenth-century mechanistic view of animals propounded by the Spaniard Gómez Pereira. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 18-21, 87; the entry on Pereira in Peter [Pierre] Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical, tr. anon. (5 vols.; London, 1737), IV, 545-54; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Llavona, "Minds and Machines in Renaissance Spain: Gómez Pereira's Theory of Animal Behavior," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 28 (1992), 158-68; Leonora D. Cohen, "Descartes and Henry More on the Beast-Machine - A Translation of their Correspondence pertaining to Animal Automatism," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 48-61; Harwood, Love for Animals, 81-98; Thomas H. Huxley, "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History," in Collected Essays (1893-1894) (9 vols.; London, 1893-94, repr. Hildesheim, 1970), 1, 199-250; Wallace Shugg, "The Cartesian Beast-Machine in English Literature (1663-1750)," JHI, 29 (1968), 279-92; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437; John Cottingham, "A Brute to the Brutes? Descartes' Treatment of Animals," in René Descartes, Critical Assessments, ed. Georges J. D. Moyal (4 vols.; London, 1991), IV, 323-31; and Peter Harrison, "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), 219-27.
53. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
54. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
55. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
56. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
57. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
58. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
59. See Malebranche, The Search after Truth, and Elucidations of the Search after Truth, tr. T. M. Lennon and P. J. Olscamp (Columbus, 1980), 98, 114-15, 189-90, 323-24, 351-53, 661; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 521-24; Huxley, "Hypothesis that Animals are Automata," 218-19; MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 437-38; Andreas-Holger Maehle and Ulrich Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation from Antiquity to the End of the Eighteenth Century: Attitudes and Arguments," Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London, 1987), 14-47, esp. 26-27; Passmore, "Treatment of Animals," 204; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 41-43, 69-70, 265-69, which also includes the story about the pregnant bitch.
60. See Baruch Spinoza, Ethics III, LVII, Note, and IV, XXXVII, Note I, in Ethics and On the Correction of the Understanding, tr. Andrew Boyle (London, 1986), 125, 167; David Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs," Philosophical Studies, 29 (1982-83), 202-9; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 443-44. Huygens despised Spinoza, but probably mainly for social rather than intellectual reasons. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 9.
61. See Baruch Spinoza, Ethics III, LVII, Note, and IV, XXXVII, Note I, in Ethics and On the Correction of the Understanding, tr. Andrew Boyle (London, 1986), 125, 167; David Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs," Philosophical Studies, 29 (1982-83), 202-9; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 443-44. Huygens despised Spinoza, but probably mainly for social rather than intellectual reasons. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 9.
62. See Baruch Spinoza, Ethics III, LVII, Note, and IV, XXXVII, Note I, in Ethics and On the Correction of the Understanding, tr. Andrew Boyle (London, 1986), 125, 167; David Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs," Philosophical Studies, 29 (1982-83), 202-9; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 443-44. Huygens despised Spinoza, but probably mainly for social rather than intellectual reasons. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 9.
63. See Baruch Spinoza, Ethics III, LVII, Note, and IV, XXXVII, Note I, in Ethics and On the Correction of the Understanding, tr. Andrew Boyle (London, 1986), 125, 167; David Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs," Philosophical Studies, 29 (1982-83), 202-9; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 443-44. Huygens despised Spinoza, but probably mainly for social rather than intellectual reasons. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 9.
64. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
65. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
66. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
67. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
68. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
69. Cf. Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406-7; Harrison, "Animal Souls," 542-43; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23-24; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes," 228; and see also Andreas-Holger Maehle, "The Ethical Discourse on Animal Experimentation 1650-1900," Doctors and Ethics: The Earlier Historical Setting of Professional Ethics, ed. Andrew Wear et al. (Amsterdam, 1993), 203-51, and "Literary Responses"; and G. A. Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog, Physiological Experiments at Leiden during the Seventeenth Century," Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century, an Exchange of Learning, ed. Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer and G. H. M. P. Meyjes (Leiden, 1975), 279-93.
70. Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de Port-Royal (2 vols, in 1; Utrecht, 1736, repr. Geneva, 1970), II, 52-53; also G. A. Lindeboom, Descartes and Medicine (Amsterdam, 1979), 41.
71. Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de Port-Royal (2 vols, in 1; Utrecht, 1736, repr. Geneva, 1970), II, 52-53; also G. A. Lindeboom, Descartes and Medicine (Amsterdam, 1979), 41.
72. The Celestial Worlds Discover'd: Or, Conjectures Concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets, tr. anon. (London, 1698) [hereafter cited as C.W.] . The work was originally written in French, and various editions and translations of it were published in the eighteenth century. See Steven J. Dick, Plurality of Worlds, the Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (Cambridge, 1982), 129-30, 135; Jean Seidengart, "Les théories cosmologiques de Christiaan Huygens," Huygens et la France, table ronde du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 27-29 mars 1979 (Paris, 1982), 209-22, esp. 211; and Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes (22 vols.; The Hague, 1888-1950), XXI, 674-75 [hereafter cited as O.C.].
73. The Celestial Worlds Discover'd: Or, Conjectures Concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets, tr. anon. (London, 1698) [hereafter cited as C.W.] . The work was originally written in French, and various editions and translations of it were published in the eighteenth century. See Steven J. Dick, Plurality of Worlds, the Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (Cambridge, 1982), 129-30, 135; Jean Seidengart, "Les théories cosmologiques de Christiaan Huygens," Huygens et la France, table ronde du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 27-29 mars 1979 (Paris, 1982), 209-22, esp. 211; and Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes (22 vols.; The Hague, 1888-1950), XXI, 674-75 [hereafter cited as O.C.].
74. The Celestial Worlds Discover'd: Or, Conjectures Concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets, tr. anon. (London, 1698) [hereafter cited as C.W.] . The work was originally written in French, and various editions and translations of it were published in the eighteenth century. See Steven J. Dick, Plurality of Worlds, the Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (Cambridge, 1982), 129-30, 135; Jean Seidengart, "Les théories cosmologiques de Christiaan Huygens," Huygens et la France, table ronde du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 27-29 mars 1979 (Paris, 1982), 209-22, esp. 211; and Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes (22 vols.; The Hague, 1888-1950), XXI, 674-75 [hereafter cited as O.C.].
75. The Celestial Worlds Discover'd: Or, Conjectures Concerning the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions of the Worlds in the Planets, tr. anon. (London, 1698) [hereafter cited as C.W.] . The work was originally written in French, and various editions and translations of it were published in the eighteenth century. See Steven J. Dick, Plurality of Worlds, the Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (Cambridge, 1982), 129-30, 135; Jean Seidengart, "Les théories cosmologiques de Christiaan Huygens," Huygens et la France, table ronde du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 27-29 mars 1979 (Paris, 1982), 209-22, esp. 211; and Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes (22 vols.; The Hague, 1888-1950), XXI, 674-75 [hereafter cited as O.C.].
76. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
77. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
78. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
79. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
80. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
81. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
82. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
83. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
84. For an unconvincing attempt, in my opinion, to explain Huygens's and Descartes's differing views on animals as functions mainly of their different religious views and Huygens's ideas on determinism, see the remarks by the editors in ibid., XXI, 662, 667. For general discussions of the Cosmotheoros, see Bell, Christian Huygens, 200-202; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 126-35, 186-87; David Knight, "Celestial Worlds Discover'd," The Durham University Journal, 58, new series 27 (1965), 23-29; David M. Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity of Nature in 17th Century Treatises on Plurality of Worlds," Organon, 4 (1967), 61-68, esp. 67-68; Grant McColley, "The Seventeenth-Century Doctrine of a Plurality of Worlds," Annals of Science, 1 (1936), 385-430; Milton K. Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," Roots of Scientific Thought, a Cultural Perspective, ed. Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland (New York, 1957), 593-617; Paolo Rossi, "Nobility of Man and Plurality of Worlds," tr. Arthur Brickmann, Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, Essays to honor Walter Pagel, ed. Allen G. Debus (2 vols.; London, 1972), II, 131-62; and Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques."
85. Huygens, C.W., 56-57.
86. Ibid., 57.
87. Ibid., 58-59.
88. Ibid., 60-62.
89. Ibid., 59-60.
90. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
91. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
92. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
93. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
94. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
95. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
96. See Christopher B. Burch, Christiaan Huygens: The Development of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations of Mechanics (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1981; reprint Ann Arbor, 1987), 144-50, 168-81; E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture, Pythagoras to Newton, tr. C. Dikshoorn (Princeton, 1986), 457-58; René Dugas, "Sur le Cartésianisme de Huygens," Revue d'histoire des sciences, 7 (1954), 22-33; Aant Elzinga, "Christiaan Huygens' Theory of Research," Seventeenth-Century Natural Scientists, ed. Vere Chapell, Essays on Early Modern Philosophers from Descartes and Hobbes to Newton and Leibniz (12 vols.; New York, 1992), VII, 147-66, and On a Research Program in Early Modern Physics (Göteborg, 1972), 14, 16-18, 27-34, 36-37, 39-40, 80-85; and Robert S. Westman, "Huygens and the Problem of Cartesianism," Studies on Christiaan Huygens, 83-103.
97. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 25. In a letter from September 1646 to Christiaan's father Constantijn, Mersenne expressed disagreement with the Cartesian assertion that animals are devoid of souls (Huygens, O. C., I, 21).
98. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 25. In a letter from September 1646 to Christiaan's father Constantijn, Mersenne expressed disagreement with the Cartesian assertion that animals are devoid of souls (Huygens, O. C., I, 21).
99. See Gassendi's remarks in his objections to Descartes's Meditations in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, tr. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (2 vols.; Cambridge, 1967), II, 144-46; also 211-12 (Descartes); Bell, Christian Huygens, 27-28; Boas, Happy Beast, 91, 132-35; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 10-11, 13, 25, 110-14, 143, 157, 159, 175-76, 188, 271-72.
100. See Gassendi's remarks in his objections to Descartes's Meditations in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, tr. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (2 vols.; Cambridge, 1967), II, 144-46; also 211-12 (Descartes); Bell, Christian Huygens, 27-28; Boas, Happy Beast, 91, 132-35; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 10-11, 13, 25, 110-14, 143, 157, 159, 175-76, 188, 271-72.
101. See Gassendi's remarks in his objections to Descartes's Meditations in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, tr. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (2 vols.; Cambridge, 1967), II, 144-46; also 211-12 (Descartes); Bell, Christian Huygens, 27-28; Boas, Happy Beast, 91, 132-35; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 10-11, 13, 25, 110-14, 143, 157, 159, 175-76, 188, 271-72.
102. See Gassendi's remarks in his objections to Descartes's Meditations in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, tr. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (2 vols.; Cambridge, 1967), II, 144-46; also 211-12 (Descartes); Bell, Christian Huygens, 27-28; Boas, Happy Beast, 91, 132-35; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 10-11, 13, 25, 110-14, 143, 157, 159, 175-76, 188, 271-72.
103. See ibid., 113, 158-63, 201; Bell, Christian Huygens, 95; and Boas, Happy Beast, 141-42.
104. See ibid., 113, 158-63, 201; Bell, Christian Huygens, 95; and Boas, Happy Beast, 141-42.
105. See ibid., 113, 158-63, 201; Bell, Christian Huygens, 95; and Boas, Happy Beast, 141-42.
106. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Philosophical Papers and Letters, tr. L. E. Loemker (Dordrecht, 1969), 275-76; and Bell, Christian Huygens, 69, 80-81, 88-91, 96, 211.
107. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Philosophical Papers and Letters, tr. L. E. Loemker (Dordrecht, 1969), 275-76; and Bell, Christian Huygens, 69, 80-81, 88-91, 96, 211.
108. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
109. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
110. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
111. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
112. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
113. See Kant, Lectures on Ethics, 240; and Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, Ga., 1984), 46; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 436, 443; Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 188, 204; Mark Kulstad, "Leibniz, Animals, and Apperception," Studio Leihnitiana, 13 (1981), 25-60; and Murray Miles, "Leibniz on Apperception and Animal Souls," Dialogue, 33 (1994), 701-24.
114. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 74-75.
115. See Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine"; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?"; Rossi, "Nobility of Man"; and Dick, Plurality of Worlds.
116. See Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine"; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?"; Rossi, "Nobility of Man"; and Dick, Plurality of Worlds.
117. See Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine"; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?"; Rossi, "Nobility of Man"; and Dick, Plurality of Worlds.
118. See Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine"; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?"; Rossi, "Nobility of Man"; and Dick, Plurality of Worlds.
119. See Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine"; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?"; Rossi, "Nobility of Man"; and Dick, Plurality of Worlds.
120. See notes 12 and 13 above.
121. See Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 61-63, 119 and passim; Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," 64, 66; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 406-9, 429; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," 604-5; and particularly Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 137-39 and passim.
122. See Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 61-63, 119 and passim; Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," 64, 66; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 406-9, 429; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," 604-5; and particularly Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 137-39 and passim.
123. See Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 61-63, 119 and passim; Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," 64, 66; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 406-9, 429; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," 604-5; and particularly Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 137-39 and passim.
124. See Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 61-63, 119 and passim; Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," 64, 66; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 406-9, 429; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," 604-5; and particularly Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 137-39 and passim.
125. See Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 61-63, 119 and passim; Knight, "Uniformity and Diversity," 64, 66; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 406-9, 429; Munitz, "One Universe or Many?," 604-5; and particularly Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 137-39 and passim.
126. See Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (New York, 1960), 108, 115-16, 123-25, 130; and also passim on many issues related to the extraterrestrial debate.
127. See the introduction to Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle, Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, tr. H. A. Hargreaves (Berkeley, 1990).
128. Huygens, C. W., 6-8.
129. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
130. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
131. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
132. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
133. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
134. On Bruno see Evelyn M. Cesaresco, The Place of Animals in Human Thought (London, 1909), 353; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 63-69; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 116; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 414; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 133. Huygens was familiar with Bruno's views on this issue (C. W., 3).
135. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
136. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
137. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
138. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
139. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
140. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
141. See Bell, Christian Huygens, 200; Fontenelle, Conversations; Huygens, C. W., 3; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 123-26, 129; Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 146, 156, 158; Seidengart, "Théories cosmologiques," 209-10; and Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 69-70, 126-27.
142. See Descartes's letter to Chanut from 6 June 1647, in Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (11 vols.; Paris, 1974), V, 50-58; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 106-41; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 123-25, 188; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 417; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 152-54.
143. See Descartes's letter to Chanut from 6 June 1647, in Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (11 vols.; Paris, 1974), V, 50-58; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 106-41; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 123-25, 188; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 417; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 152-54.
144. See Descartes's letter to Chanut from 6 June 1647, in Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (11 vols.; Paris, 1974), V, 50-58; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 106-41; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 123-25, 188; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 417; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 152-54.
145. See Descartes's letter to Chanut from 6 June 1647, in Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (11 vols.; Paris, 1974), V, 50-58; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 106-41; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 123-25, 188; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 417; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 152-54.
146. See Descartes's letter to Chanut from 6 June 1647, in Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (11 vols.; Paris, 1974), V, 50-58; Dick, Plurality of Worlds, 106-41; Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, 123-25, 188; McColley, "Seventeenth-Century Doctrine," 417; and Rossi, "Nobility of Man," 152-54.
147. See Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs"; Genevieve Lloyd, "Spinoza's Environmental Ethics," Inquiry, 23 (1980), 293-311; and Arne Naess, "Environmental Ethics and Spinoza's Ethics and comments on Genevieve Lloyd's Article" idem, 313-25.
148. See Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs"; Genevieve Lloyd, "Spinoza's Environmental Ethics," Inquiry, 23 (1980), 293-311; and Arne Naess, "Environmental Ethics and Spinoza's Ethics and comments on Genevieve Lloyd's Article" idem, 313-25.
149. See Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs"; Genevieve Lloyd, "Spinoza's Environmental Ethics," Inquiry, 23 (1980), 293-311; and Arne Naess, "Environmental Ethics and Spinoza's Ethics and comments on Genevieve Lloyd's Article" idem, 313-25.
150. See Berman, "Spinoza's Spiders, Schopenhauer's Dogs"; Genevieve Lloyd, "Spinoza's Environmental Ethics," Inquiry, 23 (1980), 293-311; and Arne Naess, "Environmental Ethics and Spinoza's Ethics and comments on Genevieve Lloyd's Article" idem, 313-25.
151. Huygens, C. W., 37-38; also 7-8, 36-39, and the editors' remarks in Huygens, O.C., XXI, 663-64.
152. Huygens, C. W., 37-38; also 7-8, 36-39, and the editors' remarks in Huygens, O.C., XXI, 663-64.
153. Huygens, C. W., 38.
154. Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 205-6; and Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23, 27.
155. Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 205-6; and Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 23, 27.
156. See Rosenfield, Beast-Machine to Man-Machine, 88-89.
157. See Nikolaus Mani, "Jean Riolan II (1580-1657) and Medical Research," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 42 (1974), 121-44; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-23; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 206-8; also 204, 210, and "Literary Responses," 31, 34-35; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 470-71.
158. See Nikolaus Mani, "Jean Riolan II (1580-1657) and Medical Research," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 42 (1974), 121-44; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-23; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 206-8; also 204, 210, and "Literary Responses," 31, 34-35; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 470-71.
159. See Nikolaus Mani, "Jean Riolan II (1580-1657) and Medical Research," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 42 (1974), 121-44; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-23; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 206-8; also 204, 210, and "Literary Responses," 31, 34-35; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 470-71.
160. See Nikolaus Mani, "Jean Riolan II (1580-1657) and Medical Research," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 42 (1974), 121-44; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-23; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 206-8; also 204, 210, and "Literary Responses," 31, 34-35; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 470-71.
161. See Nikolaus Mani, "Jean Riolan II (1580-1657) and Medical Research," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 42 (1974), 121-44; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-23; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 206-8; also 204, 210, and "Literary Responses," 31, 34-35; and MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," 470-71.
162. See Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog"; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20, 26; and A. M. Luyendijk-Elshout, "Introduction," tr. I. Seeger-Wolf, in Frederik Ruysch, Dilucidatio Valvularum in Vasis Lymphaticis et Lacteis (n.p., 1665, repr. Nieuwkoop, 1964), 7-44; also Jan C. C. Rupp, "Matters of Life and Death: The Social and Cultural Conditions of the Rise of Anatomical Theatres, with Special Reference to Seventeenth-Century Holland," History of Science, 28 (1990), 263-87.
163. See Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog"; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20, 26; and A. M. Luyendijk-Elshout, "Introduction," tr. I. Seeger-Wolf, in Frederik Ruysch, Dilucidatio Valvularum in Vasis Lymphaticis et Lacteis (n.p., 1665, repr. Nieuwkoop, 1964), 7-44; also Jan C. C. Rupp, "Matters of Life and Death: The Social and Cultural Conditions of the Rise of Anatomical Theatres, with Special Reference to Seventeenth-Century Holland," History of Science, 28 (1990), 263-87.
164. See Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog"; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20, 26; and A. M. Luyendijk-Elshout, "Introduction," tr. I. Seeger-Wolf, in Frederik Ruysch, Dilucidatio Valvularum in Vasis Lymphaticis et Lacteis (n.p., 1665, repr. Nieuwkoop, 1964), 7-44; also Jan C. C. Rupp, "Matters of Life and Death: The Social and Cultural Conditions of the Rise of Anatomical Theatres, with Special Reference to Seventeenth-Century Holland," History of Science, 28 (1990), 263-87.
165. See Lindeboom, "Dog and Frog"; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20, 26; and A. M. Luyendijk-Elshout, "Introduction," tr. I. Seeger-Wolf, in Frederik Ruysch, Dilucidatio Valvularum in Vasis Lymphaticis et Lacteis (n.p., 1665, repr. Nieuwkoop, 1964), 7-44; also Jan C. C. Rupp, "Matters of Life and Death: The Social and Cultural Conditions of the Rise of Anatomical Theatres, with Special Reference to Seventeenth-Century Holland," History of Science, 28 (1990), 263-87.
166. Luyendijk-Elshout, "Introduction," 34-37, and 22-23.
167. Quoted from ibid., 35-36; see also Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406.
168. Quoted from ibid., 35-36; see also Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 406.
169. Lindeboom, Descartes and Medicine, 64; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 205.
170. Lindeboom, Descartes and Medicine, 64; and Maehle, "Ethical Discourse," 205.
171. Otto von Guericke, The New (So-Called) Magdeburg Experiments of Otto von Guericke, tr. Margaret G. F. Ames (Dordrecht, 1994), 143; also 77-81, 282-83, 335-41 (on extraterrestrial worlds and creatures).
172. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
173. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98,
174. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
175. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
176. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
177. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
178. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
179. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
180. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
181. See Guerrini, "Ethics of Animal Experimentation," 395-98, 400-402, 406; Harwood, Love for Animals, 98-114, esp. 103, 105-6, 111; Maehle, "Literary Responses," 33; and "Ethical Discourse," 205, 208-9; Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 20-21; Shugg, "Humanitarian Attitudes"; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 174; and Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution, Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford, 1989), 57; also MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle"; Malcolm R. Oster, "The 'Beam of Diuinity': Animal Suffering in the Early Thought of Robert Boyle," British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 151-79; and see also the remarks below.
182. See Maehle and Tröhler, "Animal Experimentation," 21-22.
183. See Harrison, "Animal Souls," 520.
184. Ibid., but see his remarks here and in "Virtues of Animals," 482-83, and passim.
185. Ibid., but see his remarks here and in "Virtues of Animals," 482-83, and passim.
186. See Alice Stroup, "Christiaan Huygens & the Development of the Air Pump," Janus, 68 (1981), 129-58.
187. Ibid., 139.
188. Huygens, letter to Sir Robert Moray (4 Jan. 1662), O.C., IV, 8.
189. Ibid., III, 395.
190. Ibid., XVII, 312: "II ne parut pas encore très incommodé par les deux premiers coups, mais ensuite il commenca à haleter et après cela il pencha la tête en clignotant des yeux. Puis il se ranima, fut un instant complètement en eveil et battit des ailes; mais bientôt it redevint tranquille et tomba sans connaissance, mort. A chaque coup on le voyait s'enfler quelque peu."
191. Ibid., III, 397, letter (7 Dec. 1661).
192. Ibid., VII, 44, letter (31 Oct. 1670).
193. Ibid., XIX, 207 (experiment of 14 April 1668): "On a mis dans le recipient une souris vivante, laquelle s'estant fort debattue la premiere fois, qu'on pompe l'air, parut fort affoiblie la seconde fois, et la troisiesme, demeura étendue et sans mouvement. On luy redonna aussytost de l'air, mais elle ne remua point, et ayant esté tirée hors du Recipient, elle fut trouvée morte. Quelque temps apres on en fit la dissection, et on ne remarqua rien d'extraordinaire dans son corps, si ce n'est que le poumon sembloit estre un peu flestry."
194. Ibid., XIX, 211 (experiment of 5 May 1668).
195. See Bell, Christian Huvgens, 215; and Stroup, "Christiaan Huygens & the Development of the Air Pump," 135.
196. See Bell, Christian Huvgens, 215; and Stroup, "Christiaan Huygens & the Development of the Air Pump," 135.
197. See Huygens, O.C., XIX, 231-33; the book was published in 1674.
198. Ibid., V, 60 (letter of 26 April 1664).
199. See MacIntosh, "Animals, Morality and Robert Boyle," and the sources cited, n. 46 above.
200. See Lovejoy, Great Chain of Being, passim.
201. Exceptional to this are certain cases of extreme theriophily, but these are relatively rare. See Boas, Happy Beast, 1-2 and passim.