The European union in South-East Asia: Continuity and change in turbulent times

International Affairs

Volumn 75, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 743-758

  Forster, Anthony ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0040368106     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00106     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. The founding states of ASEAN are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei joined in 1984; Vietnam in 1995; Laos and Myanmar (Burma) in 1997; and Cambodia in 1999.
2. Vimolvan Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations (1907-present): a Thai perspective', paper presented to the international conference, 'Europe and South-East Asia in the contemporary world: mutual influences and comparisons', Wuppertal, 8-10 October 1998, p. 1.
3. See e.g. Commission President Roy Jenkins' comment that 'we have always sought to treat ASEAN as a region, since we from our own experience have learnt that an external stimulus can often support internal cooperation': Simon Nuttall, European political cooperation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 289. See also Article 5 of the Bangkok Declaration (Kuala Lumpur: Facts on ASEAN, 1977).
4. Redmond, 'The European Community and ASEAN', p. 138; cf. Juliet Lodge, 'The transition to a CFSP', in Juliet Lodge, ed., The European Community and the challenge of the future, 2nd edn (London: Pinter, 1993), pp. 227-51 at p. 243.
5. Redmond, 'The European Community and ASEAN', p. 138; cf. Juliet Lodge, 'The transition to a CFSP', in Juliet Lodge, ed., The European Community and the challenge of the future, 2nd edn (London: Pinter, 1993), pp. 227-51 at p. 243.
6. Wolfgang Hager, 'Protectionism and autonomy: how to preserve free trade in Europe', International Affairs, Summer 1982. See also Lester Thurow, Head to head: the coming economic battle among Japan, Europe and America (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Loukas Tsoukalis, The new European economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 301.
7. Wolfgang Hager, 'Protectionism and autonomy: how to preserve free trade in Europe', International Affairs, Summer 1982. See also Lester Thurow, Head to head: the coming economic battle among Japan, Europe and America (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Loukas Tsoukalis, The new European economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 301.
8. Wolfgang Hager, 'Protectionism and autonomy: how to preserve free trade in Europe', International Affairs, Summer 1982. See also Lester Thurow, Head to head: the coming economic battle among Japan, Europe and America (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992); Loukas Tsoukalis, The new European economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 301.
9. For a discussion of this see Joseph A. McMahon, 'ASEAN and the Asia-Europe Meeting: strengthening the European Union's relationship with South-East Asia', European Foreign Affairs Review 3, 1998, pp. 233-51 at p. 235.
10. For the constructed nature of South-East Asia see Julie Gilson, 'Creating Asia through the Asia-Europe Meeting', paper presented to the Third Pan-European Conference on International Relations, Vienna, 16-19 September 1998, p. 10; and Alice Ba, 'The ASEAN Regional Forum', International Journal, Autumn 1997, pp. 635-56 at p. 635.
11. For the constructed nature of South-East Asia see Julie Gilson, 'Creating Asia through the Asia-Europe Meeting', paper presented to the Third Pan-European Conference on International Relations, Vienna, 16-19 September 1998, p. 10; and Alice Ba, 'The ASEAN Regional Forum', International Journal, Autumn 1997, pp. 635-56 at p. 635.
12. Noordin Sopiee. 'The development of an East Asian consciousness', in Greg Sheridan, ed., Living with dragons: Australia confronts its Asian destiny (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1995), p. 191; Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 16.
13. Noordin Sopiee. 'The development of an East Asian consciousness', in Greg Sheridan, ed., Living with dragons: Australia confronts its Asian destiny (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1995), p. 191; Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 16.
14. Christopher Hill, 'The capability-expectations gap, or conceptualising Europe's international role', Journal of Common Market Studies 31: 3, September 1993, pp. 305-28.
15. See e.g. the Europe-Mediterranean Partnership agreed in October 1994 and the EU-MERCOSUR agreement signed in February 1995.
16. Up to this point, EC competences were limited to the common commercial policy, relations with third states and competence for establishing association agreements.
17. Allen Whiting, 'ASEAN eyes China: the security dimension', Asian Survey 37, April 1997, pp. 299-322. For the debate on whether member states of the EU should be represented, see 'Not the ASEAN way', Economist, 26 October 1996; 'Asia-Pacific: EU angry with UK, France on ASEAN move', Economist, 24 July 1996.
18. Allen Whiting, 'ASEAN eyes China: the security dimension', Asian Survey 37, April 1997, pp. 299-322. For the debate on whether member states of the EU should be represented, see 'Not the ASEAN way', Economist, 26 October 1996; 'Asia-Pacific: EU angry with UK, France on ASEAN move', Economist, 24 July 1996.
19. Allen Whiting, 'ASEAN eyes China: the security dimension', Asian Survey 37, April 1997, pp. 299-322. For the debate on whether member states of the EU should be represented, see 'Not the ASEAN way', Economist, 26 October 1996; 'Asia-Pacific: EU angry with UK, France on ASEAN move', Economist, 24 July 1996.
20. Ba, 'The ASEAN Regional Forum', p. 635. ASEAN member states also signed the South-East Asian Nuclear Weapons-Free Zone Treaty in December 1995.
21. Let's make a deal', Asiaweek, 15 March 1996, p. 26.
22. APEC was formed in 1989; initial membership comprised the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. Hong Kong, China and Taiwan joined in 1991.
23. R. James Ferguson, 'Shaping new relationships: Asia, Europe and the new trilateralism', International Politics 34, December 1997, pp. 395-415 at p. 400. See also François Godement, 'Europe and Asia: the missing link', Asia's international role in the post Cold War era, Part II, Adelphi Paper 276 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993). However, Gerald Segal notes that it was continuously stated that ASEM was complementary to strong Asia-American relations, rather than a challenge or an alternative to it.
24. R. James Ferguson, 'Shaping new relationships: Asia, Europe and the new trilateralism', International Politics 34, December 1997, pp. 395-415 at p. 400. See also François Godement, 'Europe and Asia: the missing link', Asia's international role in the post Cold War era, Part II, Adelphi Paper 276 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993). However, Gerald Segal notes that it was continuously stated that ASEM was complementary to strong Asia-American relations, rather than a challenge or an alternative to it.
25. Roy Jenkins, quoted in Nuttall, European political cooperation, p. 289.
26. See e.g. President Chirac's speech, quoted in Peter Montagnon and Ted Bardacke, 'Chirac sees EU as Asian partner', Financial Times, 1 March 1996, where Chirac explicitly drew attention to the fact that 'Asia deserved a larger political role in the world, commensurate with its economic power'.
27. This was a 4 per cent reduction from the level in the late 1980s, which was directly attributed to the creation of the single market and Eurocentric focus to investment. See Caroline Southey, 'Europe's business record in Asia under fire', Financial Times, 20 March 1996.
28. The Economist notes that the EU expects trade to rise twice as fast as with the United States next century: 'Groundhog day', Economist, 26 January 1996.
29. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, 'Towards a New Asia Strategy', COM (94) 314 final, Brussels, 13 July 1994. However, it proposed no new instruments for achieving these objectives, but highlighted the existing institutional and procedural contacts built up in the early years of the EU-ASEAN relationship. For example, it did not extend the four offices in the region, the major office remaining in Bangkok, rather than alongside the ASEAN secretariat in Jakarta, and the strategy did not include any new financial arrangements. Neither did it single out ASEAN as a particularly important means of strengthening the broader relationship. See also COM (96) 314, 17-18.
30. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, 'Towards a New Asia Strategy', COM (94) 314 final, Brussels, 13 July 1994. However, it proposed no new instruments for achieving these objectives, but highlighted the existing institutional and procedural contacts built up in the early years of the EU-ASEAN relationship. For example, it did not extend the four offices in the region, the major office remaining in Bangkok, rather than alongside the ASEAN secretariat in Jakarta, and the strategy did not include any new financial arrangements. Neither did it single out ASEAN as a particularly important means of strengthening the broader relationship. See also COM (96) 314, 17-18.
31. Lodge, 'The transition to a CFSP', p. 243. See also Tsoukalis, The new European economy.
32. Lodge, 'The transition to a CFSP', p. 243. See also Tsoukalis, The new European economy.
33. Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 16.
34. Meeting of ASEAN Heads of Government, Singapore, 27-28 January 1992 (Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 1992).
35. The emergence of the new agenda can be traced back to the mid-1980s. After 1993 a step change was noticeable with the codification of the human rights agenda, the establishment of a clear benchmark and the growing activism of the European Parliament.
36. Eero Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations: reconciling two different agendas', Contemporary Southeast Asia 19: 3, December 1997, pp. 269-85, p. 272.
37. Ibid., p. 274.
38. Communication from the Commission to the Council, COM (94) 13, final, Brussels, 1997.
39. The extent to which this is simply a means of defending the European welfare state model(s) against an alternative Asian economic model is an open question. For the tensions inside the EU see COM (96) 314 final, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee, 'Creating a new dynamic in EU-ASEAN relations', p. 28, quoted in Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 275.
40. The extent to which this is simply a means of defending the European welfare state model(s) against an alternative Asian economic model is an open question. For the tensions inside the EU see COM (96) 314 final, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee, 'Creating a new dynamic in EU-ASEAN relations', p. 28, quoted in Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 275.
41. The extent to which this is simply a means of defending the European welfare state model(s) against an alternative Asian economic model is an open question. For the tensions inside the EU see COM (96) 314 final, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee, 'Creating a new dynamic in EU-ASEAN relations', p. 28, quoted in Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 275.
42. In general, the European Commission has been more hesitant, though its position is constrained by bureaucratic in-fighting. The Human Rights Directorate is supportive of the European Parliament's commissioning reports from the EP-sponsored Institute for Europe-Asia Studies. However, the 'area' directorate generals remain dominant and less keen. See e.g. the more relaxed European Commission position concerning Myanmar membership of ASEAN: 'Declaration by the European Union on the accession of Cambodia, Laos and Burma/Myanmar to ASEAN', Luxembourg, 2 June 1997 837/97 (Presse 1989), E/59/97.
43. For an excellent discussion of this see Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 23.
44. See Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 273.
45. Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 23.
46. 'A new dynamic' (Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities, 1996), COM (96) 314.
47. The meeting in question was that of senior officials in the Joint Consultation Committee and was cancelled because of the EU's concern over human rights violations in Myanmar on the basis of a technical argument that Myanmar was not a signatory of the 1980 Cooperation Agreement.
48. McMahon, 'ASEAN and the Asia-Europe Meeting', p. 237.
49. See Jacques Pelkmans and Hiroko Shinkai, eds, ASEM: how promising a partnership? (Brussels: European Institute for Asia Studies, 1997).
50. Mr Goh Chok Tong, the Prime Minister of Singapore, made the initial proposal. For an insider's view see Victor Pou Serradell, 'The Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM): a historical turning point in relations between the two regions', European Foreign Affairs Review 2, 1996, p. 185.
51. For the chronology of the speed with which the EU responded see Toshiro Tanaka, 'Asia-Europe relations: the birth and development of ASEM', Keio Journal of Politics 10, 1999, pp. 31-51 at p. 36.
52. Serradeu, 'The Asia-Europe meeting', p. 199. See also McMahon, 'ASEAN and the Asia-Europe Meeting', p. 242.
53. Serradeu, 'The Asia-Europe meeting', p. 199. See also McMahon, 'ASEAN and the Asia-Europe Meeting', p. 242.
54. For an overview of activities, see Tanaka, 'Asia-Europe relations', pp. 38, 47.
55. Michael Smith, 'Negotiating the new millennium: the roles of the European Union', paper presented at the Third Pan-European International Relations Conference and Joint Meeting with the International Studies Association, Vienna, 16-19 September 1998, p. 14.
56. Palumjoki, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 281.
57. See Tanaka, 'Asia-Europe relations', p. 38.
58. See also Paul Lim, 'The London ASEM II Summit: issues and outcomes', paper presented to the Asia-Europe Linkages Conference, University of Birmingham, 2-3 July 1999, p. 5.
59. McMahon, 'ASEAN and the Asia-Europe Meeting', p. 245.
60. For comment on the economic impact of the crisis on the EU and its economy see Neil Harris, European business, 2nd edn (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), pp. 38-40.
61. Gilson, 'Creating Asia through the Asia-Europe Meeting', p. 15.
62. Ibid.
63. Phatharodom, 'EU-ASEAN relations', p. 22.
64. Sec e.g. France and Britain's demands for a separate seat in ARF alongside that of the Troika and Commission. 'Not the ASEAN way: Europe's Asian muddle', Economist, 26 October 1996; 'EU angry at UK, France on ASEAN move', Economist, 24 July 1996.
65. Sec e.g. France and Britain's demands for a separate seat in ARF alongside that of the Troika and Commission. 'Not the ASEAN way: Europe's Asian muddle', Economist, 26 October 1996; 'EU angry at UK, France on ASEAN move', Economist, 24 July 1996.