The statistical war on equality: Visions of American virtuosity in the bell curve

Quarterly Journal of Speech

Volumn 85, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 303-329

  Grey, Stephanie Houston ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

American progress ethic; Race; Rhetoric of inquiry; Social science; The Bell Curve

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040364472     PISSN: 00335630     EISSN: 14795779     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00335639909384263     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. For a review see Nikolas Rose, "Expertise and the Government of Conduct," Studies in Law, Politics, and Society 14 (1994): 359-97.
2. Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge UP, 1992) 60.
3. Donald Levine, Visions of the Sociological Tradition (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995) 268.
4. For a description see Don Stabile, "Veblen and the Political Economy of Technocracy: The Herald of the Technological Revolution Developed an Ideology of Scientific Collectivism," American Journal of Economics and Sociology 46 (1987): 33-48.
5. Raymond Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1964) 244-45.
6. Cited in George Timmons, Education, Industrialization, and Selection (New York: Routledge, 1998) 87.
7. Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1995) 82-84.
8. Stuart Noble, A History of American Education (New York: Farrar, 1938) 389.
9. Asa Hilliard, "Conceptual Confusion and the Persistence of Group Oppression Through Education," Equity and Excellence 24 (1988): 36-43
10. Yossi Shavit and David L. Featherman, "Schooling, Tracking, and Teenage Intelligence," Sociology of Education 32 (1988): 42-51
11. Joel Perlmann, "Curriculum and Tracking in the Transformation of the American High School: Providence R.I. 1880-1930," Journal of Social History 19 (1985): 29-55.
12. Cited in Joel Spring, The American Education, 1642-1990 (New York: Longman, 1990) 239.
13. Patrick Ryan, "What's European Justice?" The Economist 309 (1996): 52.
14. This increase in social quantification over the past fifty years has been attributed in part to new computing technologies. See F. Thomas Juster and Roberta Balstad Miller, "Technological Change and Social Scientific Research," Society 21 (1984): 90-91.
15. John S. Nelson and Allan Megill, "Rhetoric of Inquiry: Projects and Prospects," Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 20-37.
16. Richard Rorty, "Science as Solidarity," The Rhetoric of the Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public Affairs, ed. John Nelson, Alan Megill, and Donald McCloskey (Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1987) 46.
17. For discussions of the division of technical and social spheres see Thomas Farrell, "Knowledge, Consensus, and Rhetorical Theory," Quarterly Journal of Speech 62 (1976): 1-14
18. Thomas Farrell and Thomas Goodnight, "Accidental Rhetoric: The Root Metaphors of Three Mile Island," Communication Monographs 48 (1981): 271-300. For more detailed descriptions of the process of demarcation see
19. Charles Alan Taylor, Defining Science: A Rhetoric of Demarcation (Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1996) 102-14.
20. John Dewey, The Public and its Problems (Chicago: Swallow, 1954) 163-65.
21. Dennis H. Wrong, "The Influence of Sociological Ideas on American Culture," Sociology in America, ed. Herbert J. Gans (Newbury Park: Sage, 1990) 21.
22. Darryl Michael Scott, "Justifying Equality: Damage Imagery, Brown v. Board of Education, and the American Creed," Educational Foundations 10 (1996): 47-67.
23. Max Horkheimer, Between Philosophy and Social Science, trans. G. Frederick Hunter, Matthew Kramer, and John Torpey (Cambridge: MIT, 1993) 191.
24. For further development of this argument see Philip J. Davis and Reuben Hersh, "Rhetoric and Mathematics," The Rhetoric of the Human Sciences, ed. John S. Nelson, Alan Megill, and Donald N. McCloskey (Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1987) 53-54.
25. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1984) 10. According to the publisher this text has sold well over 500,000 copies to date. For a comprehensive discussion of The Bell Curve's reception in the popular press see
26. Henry A. Giroux and Susan Searls, "Race Talk and The Bell Curve Debate: The Crisis of Democratic Vision," Cultural Critique 34 (1996): 5-26. These authors argue that The Bell Curve has defined many contemporary discussions of race throughout the print and televisual media and has permeated the thought of conservative policy makers and advocates such as Newt Gingrich and Patrick Buchanan.
27. For an excellent overview of these critiques see Steven Fraser ed., The Bell Curve Wars (New York: Basic, 1992)
28. Russell Jacob and Naomi Glauberman eds., The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinions (New York: Times Books, 1995)
29. Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martin Sanchez Jankowski, Samuel Lucas, Ann Swindler, and Kim Voss, Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1996) 31-33
30. Robert Hayman, The Smart Culture: Society Intelligence and Law (New York: New York UP, 1998) 253-306. Also see the October 31, 1994 volume of the New Republic, an entire issue devoted to The Bell Curve. Their most notable supporter is probably Dinesh D'Souza, The End of Racism: Principles for a Multiracial Society (New York: Free Press, 1995).
31. Linda Kaplan and Charles Kaplan, "Democracy, Meritocracy, and the Cognitive Elite: The Real Thesis of The Bell Curve," Educational Theory 47 (1997): 425-31
32. Paul Houston, "For Whom the Bell Tolls," Phi Delta Kappan 78 (1996): 124-26
33. Joseph Graves and Amanda Johnson, "The Pseudoscience of Psychometry and The Bell Curve," Journal of Negro Education 64 (1995): 277-94
34. Joseph Graves, "The Pseudoscience of Psychometry and the Bell Curve "Journal of Negro Education 64 (1995): 277-94 Gregg Easterbrook, "Blacktop Basketball and The Bell Curve" The Bell Curve Debates, 30-43
35. Howard Gardner, "Scholarly Brinkmanship," The Bell Curve Debates, 61-72.
36. Frank Wilson, "For Whom Does the Bell Toll?: Meritocracy and the Cognitive Elite, and the Continuing Significance of Race in Postindustrial America," Journal of Negro Education 64 (1995): 253-66.
37. See for example Ellen Willis, "The Median is the Message," The Bell Curve Debates, 44-52.
38. Orlando Patterson, "For Whom the Bell Curves: IQ, Scores in Historical Perspective," Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 7 (1995): 80
39. Karen Rogers, "What the Bell Curve Says and Doesn't Say: Is a Balanced View Possible," Roeper Review 18 (1996): 252-55
40. Charles Lane, "Tainted Sources," The Bell Curve Debates, 125-39
41. John Sedgewick, "Inside the Pioneer Fund," The Bell Curve Debates, 144-61.
42. James Lawler, "IO: Biological Fact or Methodological Construct," Science and Society 41 (1977): 208-18
43. Hernan Vera, "Superior Intellect: Sincere Fictions of the White Self," Journal of Negro Education 64 (1995): 295-306
44. Richard Nisbett, "Dangerous, But Important," The Bell Curve Debates, 110-14
45. See Parmeswara Krishnan, "The Bell Curve: Some Statistical Concerns," Alberta Journal of Educational Research 41 (1995): 274-76
46. Leonard Lieberman, "Hermstein and Murray Inc. IQ's RUs," American Behavioral Scientist 39 (1995): 25-34
47. Stephen J. Gould, "Mismeasure by any Measure," The Bell Curve Debate, 3-13.
48. The general theme that guides these critiques is that a purified science will dispel psychometrics. For examples see Steve Abby, "IQ and the Meritocracy: Deja vu All Over Again," Discourse 16 (1995): 253-61
49. Philippe Rushton, "Racial Research and Final Solutions," Society 34 (1997): 78-82
50. Cynthia Tucker, "Resurgent Racism," The Bell Curve Debates, 286-88.
51. See Michael Apple, 'Justifying the Conservative Restoration: Morals, Genes, and Educational Policy," Educational Policy 11 (1997): 167-82
52. Ronald Walters, "The Impact of the Bell Curve Ideology on African American Public Policy," American Behavioral Scientist 39 (1995): 98-108
53. Halford Fairchild, "Unmasking Pseudoscience: Comments on How Skewed is the Bell Curve," Journal of Black Psychology 21 (1995): 297-99
54. Barbara Miner, "Who is Backing the Bell Curve," Educational Leadership 52 (1995): 80-81
55. Peter Passel, "Sermonas Science," The Bell Curve Debates, 106-109
56. Joe Chidley, "The Heart of the Matter," The Bell Curve Debates, 119-24.
57. This proliferation is illustrated in Elia Kacapyr, "It's not Easy Being Average," American Demographics 19 (1997): 32
58. Blayne Cutler, "Meet Jane Doe," American Demographics 11 (1989): 24-27
59. Russell T. Hurlburt, "Developing Estimation Skills to Increase Students' Comprehension of the Mean and Standard Deviation," Teaching Sociology 21 (1993): 177-81
60. Larry Bartels, "Specification Uncertainty and Model Averaging," American Journal of Political Sciences (1987): 641-74.
61. Jurgen Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences, trans. Sherry Weber Nicholsen and Jerry Stark (Cambridge: MIT, 1996) 12.
62. A methodology might be thought to possess aesthetic "forms" that are submerged in epistemologies such as social science. For a theoretical discussion of this general relationship see Steve Whitson and John Poulakis, "Nietzsche and the Aesthetics of Rhetoric," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 131-49.
63. Cited in H. Gray Funkhouser, "Historical Development of the Graphical Representation of Data," Osiris 1 (1937): 6.
64. Edward W. Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (New York: Verso, 1989) 285.
65. See Martin Jay, "Ideology and Occularcentrism: Is there Anything Behind the Mirror's Tain?" Intellectuals and Politics: Social Theory in a Changing World, ed. Charles Lambert (New York: Sage, 1991) 72. The relationship between vision and knowledge has a complex history. With the publication of his Optiks, Rene Descartes began to acknowledge the power of visual representation in epistemological endeavors, but remained suspicious of its capacity to access inherent truth, postulating instead an interiorization of knowledge where any thought represented as an external symbolic act distanced the individual from themselves. This suspicion of print persists in the work of Walter Ong who theorizes that the transition from oral to print culture placed the means of knowledge production in an external realm. Print, being something that is possessed and looked at rather than spoken, gave rise to a sense of alienation produced by objectification.
66. See Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method, Optics, Geometry and Meterology, trans. Paul J. Oslcamp (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965)
67. Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (New York: Routledge, 1982) 78-86.
68. Stephen Houlgate, "Vision, Reflection, and Openness: The Hegemony of Vision from a Hegelian Point of View," Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision, ed. David Levin (Berkeley: U of California P, 1993) 87-123.
69. Robert Krizek and Thomas Nakayama, "Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric," Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 291-309.
70. See Charles W. Anderson, "The Human Sciences and the Liberal Polity in Rhetorical Relationship," The Rhetoric of the Human Sciences, 341-62. The scientific impulse in the early American context can be exemplified by fields such as sociology. This "liberal" science was at its best an attempt to put objectivity to work solving social problems although eugenics is one of its more questionable products. For a discussion of the relationship between the social sciences and social equity.
71. Frank Lowenberg, "Toward a Sociological Perspective on Social Welfare Strategies," Social Science and Social Welfare, ed. John Romanyshyn (New York: CSWE, 1974) 43-69.
72. See Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, "Literary Criticism and the Politics of the New Historicism," The New Historicism, ed. H. Aram Veeser (New York: Routledge, 1985) 213-24.
73. Frank Ankersmit, "Statements, Texts, and Pictures," A New Philosophy of History, ed. Frank Ankersmit and Hans Kellner (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995) 212-40.
74. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974) 285.
75. See Emanuel Parzen, Modern Probability Theory and its Applications (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1960) 23
76. Andreas Kamlah, "The Decline of the Laplacian Theory of Probability: A Study of Stumpf, von Kries, and Meiong," The Probablistic Revolution Vol. 1: Ideas in the Sciences, ed. Lorenz Kruger, Loraine Daston and Michael Heiddleberger (Cambridge: MITP, 1987) 91-116.
77. For example see Tord Hall, Carl Friedrich Gauss: A Biography by Tord Hall, trans. Alberts Froderberg (Cambridge: MIT P, 1970) 80
78. W.K. Buhler, Gauss: A Biographical Study (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981) 140.
79. In this statistical process called normal distribution spatial points are connected in a linear relationship to one another that provide meaning to the cluster. As the "space" between cases is defined and then collapsed, establishing a stronger visual link between them, cause and effect relationships can be posed to explain their mutual attraction thus reinforcing the Newtonian notion of the closed system. Equally critical to probability was the calculation of standard error, the difference between the measured event and the formula attempting to capture the set of relationships which determine the event. The inclusion of this element, designed to manage the significance or weight of any error, enabled the scientist to make predictions beyond the single case by projecting a pattern of occurrence. For a more specific technical discussions see Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Econometrics (Cambridge: MIT, 1985) 11-13
80. Roberts. Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfield, Econometric Models and Economic Forecasts (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991) 27-29.
81. For a discussion see Ian Hacking, The Emergence of Probability (New York: Cambridge UP, 1971) 131-33.
82. For a description of this process see Ian Hacking, "How Should we do the History of Statistics?" I-and-C8 (1981): 15-26.
83. Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 1830s," Questions of Evidence: Proof, Practice, and Persuasion Across Disciplines, ed. James Chandler, Arnold Davidson, and Harry Harootunian (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1991) 401-21. Poovey notes that while the application of probability theory to society was very controversial, it was at this time that the emergent discipline began to garner wide-spread attention.
84. Lorenz Kruger, "The Slow Rise of Probablism: Philosophical Arguments in the Nineteenth Century," The Probablistic Revolution 74-76.
85. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (New York: Cambridge UP, 1992) 106.
86. Steve Pile and Nigel Thrift, "Mapping the Subject," Mapping the Subject: Geographies of Cultural Transformation, ed. Steve Pile and Nigel Thrift (New York: Routledge, 1998) 48.
87. Marcel Newts, Probability (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1973) 174.
88. Michael Stern, "Dystopian Fable," The Bell Curve Debates 117.
89. Michael Calvin McGee, "The People: A Rhetorical Alternative," Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 (1975): 235-49
90. Maurice Charland, "Constitutive Rhetoric: The Case of the Peuple Quebecois," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 133-50.
91. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1983) 7.
92. Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989) 10.
93. Dror Wahrman, Imagining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c. 1780-1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995) 373.
94. For example see Jerry Adler, "The Rise of the Overclass," Newsweek 31. June (1995): 32
95. and Lynn Ehrle, "The Myth of the Middle Class," Humanist 56 (1996): 17-20.
96. See Michael Hechter, "Should Values be Written out of the Social Scientist's Lexicon," Sociological Theory 10 (1992): 214-30.
97. Robert Lawler, Sacred Geometry: Philosophy and Practice (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992) 53.
98. Celeste Condit, "Hegemony in Mass-Mediated Society: Concordance About Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (1994): 205-30.
99. Dana L. Cloud, "Hegemony or Concordance? The Rhetoric of Tokenism in Oprah Winfrey's Rags-To-Riches Story," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 13 (1996): 115-37.
100. See Robert Young, "Scientism in the History of Management Theory," Science as Culture 8 (1990): 118-43.
101. See Summa Hikka, "The Rhetoric of Efficiency: Applied Social Science as Depoliticization," Text/Context: The Rhetoric of the Social Sciences, ed. Richard Harvey Brown (New York: De Gruyter, 1992) 135-53.
102. Bradley Rudin, "Industrial Betterment and Scientific Management as Social Control, 1890-1920," Berkeley Journal of Sociology 17 (1973): 59-77.
103. Yaron Ezrahi, "The Theatrics and Mechanics of Action: The Theater and the Machine as Political Metaphors," Social Research 62 (1995): 299-322.
104. Donald N. Levine, "The Organism Metaphor in Sociology," Social Research 62 (1996): 239-65.
105. David Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993) 152-54.
106. See also Collette Guillaumin, Racism, Sexism, Power and Ideology (Routledge: New York, 1995) 54-57.
107. Peter Hanns Reill, "Narration and Structure in Late Eighteenth-Century Historical Thought," History and Theory 25 (1986): 286-98.
108. Gould relates an instructive exchange between Charles Darwin and Galton. After seeing how Galton had twisted his theories, Darwin would write to him saying "you have made a convert of an opponent in one sense, for I have always maintained that, excepting fools, men did not differ so much in intellect, only in zeal and hard work." Galton, apparently missing the thinly veiled insult, replied that "the rejoinder that might be made to his remark about hard work, is that character, including the aptitude for work, is heritable like every other faculty." Galton's reply illustrates that no matter how subjective a trait might seem, psychometrics claim the ability quantify it. Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (1981 New York: Norton, 1996) 109.
109. Morris Janowitz, "Sociological Theory and Social Control," American Journal of Sociology 81 (1975): 82-108.
110. See Kenan Malik, The Meaning of Race: Race, History, and Culture in Western Society (New York: New York UP, 1996) 45-50
111. For a general discussion see Frank B. Livingstone, "On the Non-Existence of Human Races," The Racial Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1993) 133-44
112. Larry T. Reynolds, "A Retrospective on Race: The Career of a Concept," Sociological Focus 25 (1992): 1-14.
113. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960's to the 1990's (New York: Routledge, 1994) 3-4.
114. See also David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophies and Politics of Meaning (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993) 92-95.
115. Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Holt, 1995) 223-37.
116. Indeed one of the earliest uses of the term sociology can be found in defenses of slavery where the primary justification for maintaining this system was that clear social rankings allowed for a safe and well-ordered, Southern society. See Henry Hughes, "A Treatise on Sociology," Slavery Defended: The Views of the Old South, ed. Eric L. Mckitrick (New York: Prentice, 1973) 51-56. Published in 1854, this tract is the first American document to use "sociology" in its title, and argues for the feudal organization of American society.
117. Robert D. Romanyshyn, "The Human Body as Historical Matter and Cultural Symbol," Giving the Body its Due, ed. Maxine Sheets-Johnstone (New York: New York UP, 1992) 161.
118. Dallett Hemphill, "Middle Class Rising in Revolutionary America: The Evidence From Manners," Journal of Social History 30 (1996): 317-44.
119. David Wagner, The New Temperance: The American Obsession With Sin and Vice (Boulder: Westview, 1996) 30-32.
120. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Scribner's, 1958) 163.
121. Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1978) 42.
122. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (London, Clarendon, 1897) Sec. 1.
123. See Mathew H. Kramer, John Locke and the Origins of Private Property: Philosophical Explorations of Individualism, Community, and Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997) 47.
124. See Nigel Holmes, Designer's Guide to Creating Charts and Diagrams (New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984
125. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1989) 205.
126. Owen McLeod, "Desert and Wages," What do we Deserve?: A Reader on Justice and Desert, ed. Louis Pojman and Owen McLeod (New York: Oxford UP, 1999) 273-77.
127. Meyer Schapiro, Theory and Philosophy of Art: Style Artist and Society (New York: Braziller, 1994) 20.
128. R. Shankar Nair, "What About the Middle Class?" Chicago Tribune May 23, (1995): 2a.
129. Celeste Condit and John Loui s Lucaites, Crafting Equality: America's Anglo-African Word (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993) 201-02.
130. Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1986) 77.
131. Patricia Cline Cohen, A Calculating People: The Spread of Numeracy in Early America (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1982) 155.
132. Donna M. Hughes, "Significant Differences: The Construction of Knowledge, Objectivity, and Dominance," Women's Studies International Forum 18 (1995): 395-406.
133. Peter M. Blau, Inequality and Heterogeneity: A Primitive Theory of Social Structure (Macmillan: London, 1977) 70.
134. Kenneth Burke, The Rhetoric of Religion: Studies in Logology (Berkeley: U of California P, 1961) 39.
135. See Simon Carter, "Boundaries of Danger and Uncertainty," An Analysis of the Technological Culture of Risk Assessment," Medicine, Health and Risk: Sociological Approaches, ed. Jonathan Gabe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995) 133-150.
136. R.C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin, "IQ: The Rank Ordering of the World," The Racial Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1993) 149.
137. Quoted in Stephen M. Stigler, The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainly Before 1900 (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1986) 328.
138. Amal Banerjee, "The Triumph of Chance Over Necessity," Journal of European Studies 23 (1993): 315-24.
139. Todd, R. La Porte, "High Reliability Organizations: Unlikely, Demanding and at Risk," Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 4 (1996): 60-71
140. Peter Wilenski, "Efficiency or Equity: Competing Values in Administrative Reform," Social Planning 9 (1981): 1239-249.
141. Giles Mitchell and L. Robert Stevens, "Darwin and the Heroic Conception of Chance," The Midwest Quarterly 23 (1982): 304-16.
142. See Jan Faber and Henk Koppelaar, "Chaos Theory and Social Science: A Methodological Analysis," Quality and Quantity28 (1994): 421-23
143. Hal Gregerson and Lee Sailer, "Chaos Theory and its Implications for Social Science Research," Human Relations 46 (1993): 777-802.
144. For example see Kenneth Oldfield and Janet Hutchinson, "Predictive Validity of the Graduate Record Examination With and Without Range Restrictions," Psychological Reports 81 (1997) 211-20
145. Kenneth Oldfield, "The Political and Economic Reasons the Graduate Record Examination Persists Despite its Generally Low Predictive Validity," Journal of Thought 31 (1996): 55-68
146. Kenneth Oldfield. "On the Importance of Informing Students About the Potential Risk Associated With Taking the Graduate Record Examination," Journal of Thought 29 (1994): 61-70.
147. Cornel West, "Equality and Identity," Debating Affirmative Action: Race, Gender, Ethnicity, and the Politics of Inclusion, ed. Nicholaus Mills (New York: Delta, 1994) 83.
148. For example see Peter Sacks, "Standardized Testing: Meritocracy's Crooked Yardstick," Change 2/29 (1997): 24
149. Regina Cash, "The Wrongs of the Right," Essence, September, (1995): 86
150. Eric Foner, "Hiring Quota's for White Males Only Affirmative Action," The Nation 260/25 (1995): 924
151. June Jordan, "In the Land of White Supremacy," The Progressive 59/6 (1995): 21.
152. Randall Collins, "Statistics Versus Words," Sociological Theory 2 (1984): 329-62