The scientific fallacy of the human biological concept of race

Mankind Quarterly

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 355388-

  Biondi, Gianfranco ^a   Rickards, Olga ^b  

^a Univ di Roma Tor Vergata ^*  (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ROME TOR VERGATA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Ashley Montagu; Blumenbach; Broca; Carleton Coon; Cavalli Sforza; Darwin; Dismantling race; Evolution; F. Boas; Forensic anthropology; L. Lieberman; Linnaeus; Margaret Mead; Nazi fascist racism; Physical anthropology; R. Lewontin; S. J. Gould

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040078235     PISSN: 00252344     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. AAPA 1996 AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 101:569-570.
2. Angier, N. 2000 Do races differ? Not really, DNA shows. The New York Times August 22.
3. Armelagos, G. 1995 Race, Reason, and Rationale. Evolutionary Anthropology 4:103-109.
4. AzevÊDo, E.S. 1982 Comment on: Redefining Race: The Potential Demise of a Concept in Physical Anthropology, by A. Littlefield, L. Lieberman and L.T. Reynolds. Current Anthropology 23:647.
5. Barbujani, G., and R.R. Sokal. 1990 Zones of Sharp Genetic Change in Europe are Also Linguistic Boundaries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 87(5):1816-1819.
6. Beals, K.L. 1982 Comment on: Redefining Race: The Potential Demise of a Concept in Physical Anthropology, by A. Littlefield, L. Lieberman and L.T. Reynolds. Current Anthropology 23:648.
7. Bell Jr., W.J. 1974 Morton, Samuel George. In Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. IX. C.C. Gillispie, ed., pp. 540-541. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
8. Bernier, F. 1684 Une nouvelle division de la terre, d'après les différentes espèces des races d'hommes qui l'habitent. Journal des Savants (Paris) 24 avril.
9. Biasutti, R. 1967 Le razze e i popoli della terra. 4th edition, revised. Torino: Utet.
10. Bielicki, T. 1962 Some Possibilities for Estimating Inter-Population Relationship on the Basis of Continuous Traits. Current Anthropology 3:3-8.
11. Biondi, G., G. Battistuzzi, O. Rickards, A. Carli, G.F. DE Stefano, S.A. Santachiara-Benerecetti, G.N. Ranzani, M.Beretta, P. Astolfi, and C. Santolamazza. 1988 Migration Pattern and Genetic Marker Distribution of the Afro-American Population of Bluefields, Nicaragua. Annals of Human Biology 15:399-412.
12. Blumenback, J.F. 1795 De generis humani varietate nativa. 3rd edition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
13. Boas, F. 1912a Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants. New York: Columbia University Press.
14. 1912b Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants. American Anthropologist 14:530-562.
15. Boas, F. 1928 Anthropology and Modern Life. New York: Norton.
16. Bodmer, W.F., and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza. 1976 Genetic, Evolution, and Man. San Francisco: Freeman.
17. Bogin, B. 1993 Bio-cultural Studies of Ethnic Groups. In Research Strategies in Human Biology. G.W. Lasker and C.G.N. Mascie-Taylor, eds., pp. 33-61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
18. Bonnet, C. 1781 Oeuvres d'histoire naturelle et de philosophie. IV. Contemplation de la nature. Neuchatel: S. Fauche. [The work of Bonnet "Contemplation de la nature" was first published as a separate book in 1764].
19. Bortolini, M.C., M.A. Zago, F.M. Salzano, W.A. Silva-Júnior, S.L. Bonatto, M.C.B.O. Da Silva and T.A. Weimer. 1997 Evolutionary and Anthropological Implications of Mitochondrial DNA Variation in African Brazilian Populations. Human Biology 69:141-159.
20. Boyd, W.C. 1950. Genetics and the Races of Man: An Introduction to Modern Physical Anthropology. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
21. Brace, C.L. 1964 On the Race Concept. Current Anthropology 5:313-320.
22. Brace, C.L. 1982 The Roots of Race Concept in American Physical Anthropology. In A History of American Physical Anthropology 1930-1980 F. Spencer, ed., pp. 11-29. New York: Academic Press.
23. Bradley, R. 1721 A Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature. Endeavouring to set forth the several gradations remarkable in the mineral, vegetable, and animal parts of the creation. London: W. Mears.
24. Bravi, C.M., M. Sans, G. Bailiet, V.L. Martínez-Marignac, M. Portas, I. Barreto, C. Bonilla and N.O. Bianchi. 1997 Characterization of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Haplotypes in a Uruguayan Population of African Ancestry. Human Biology 69:641-652.
25. Bresciani, E., S. Donadoni, M.C. Guidotti, and E. Leospo (eds.). 1993 L'antico Egitto di Ippolito Rosellini. Novara: De Agostini.
26. Brues, A.M. 1992 Forensis Diagnosis of Race - General Race vs Specific Populations. Social Science and Medicine 34:125-128.
27. Buffon 1749-1804 Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière. Paris: De l'Imprimerie Royale.
28. Buffon 1749 Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière. Tome troisième: Histoire naturelle de l'homme. Paris: De l'Imprimerie Royale.
29. Buffon. 1778 Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière. Tome cinquième: Des époques de la nature. Paris: De l'Imprimerie Royale.
30. Burke, P. 1993 The Italian Renaissance. Culture and Society in Italy. Cambridge: Polity Press.
31. Cann, R.L., M. Stoneking, and A.C. Wilson 1987 Mitochondrial DNA and Human Evolution. Nature 325:31-36.
32. Cavalli-Sforza, L.L 1972 Origin and Differentiation of Human Races. Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute, pp. 15-25.
33. Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., and A.W.F. Edwards 1963 Analysis of Human Evolution. In Genetics Today, Vol. 3. S.J. Geerts, ed., (Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Genetics. The Hague. September 1963), pp. 923-933. New York: Pergamon Press (1965).
34. Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza 1994 The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
35. Chiarelli, B 1995a. Man between past and future. Washington: Institute for the Study of Man.
36. 1995b. Race: a fallacious concept. International Journal of Anthropology 10:97-105.
37. Chiarelli, B 1996 Race: what is it?. Anthropologie 34:225-229.
38. Cipriani, L 1935 Un assurdo etnico: l'impero etiopico. Firenze: Bemporad.
39. Cipriani, L 1962 Comment on: Some Possibilities for Estimating Inter-Population Relationship on the Basis of Continuous Traits, by T. Bielicki; and The Racial Analysis of Human Populations in Relation to Their Ethnogenesis, by A. Wiercinski. Current Anthropology 3:25-26.
40. Coon, C.S 1962 The Origins of Races. New York: Knopf.
41. Coon, C.S 1964 Comment on: On the Race Concept, by C.L. Brace. Current Anthropology 5:314.
42. Count, E.W 1950. This is race. New York: Schuman.
43. Count, E.W 1964 Comment on: On the Race Concept, by C.L. Brace. Current Anthropology 5:314-316.
44. Crawford, M.H. (ed.) 1984 Black Caribs. New York: Plenum Press.
45. Czekanowski, J 1909 Zur Differentialdiagnose der Neandertalgruppe. Korrespondenzblatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie 40:44-47.
46. Czekanowski, J 1962 The Theoretical Assumptions Polish Anthropology and the Morphological Facts. Current Anthropology 3:481-494.
47. Dalrymple, G.B 1991 The Age of the Earth. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
48. D'andrade, R., and P.A. Morin 1996 Chimpanzee and Human Mitochondrial DNA. American Anthropologist 98:352-370.
49. Darwin, C.R 1871 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: J. Murray.
50. Daumas, M. (ed.) 1957 Histoire de la science. Paris: Gallimard.
51. Dobzhansky, T. 1962a. Comment on: On the Non-Existence of Human Races, by F.B. Livingstone. Current Anthropology 3:279-280.
52. 1962b. Mankind Evolving. The Evolution of the Human Species. New Haven and London: Yale University.
53. Dobzhansky, T. 1973 Genetic Diversity and Human Equality. New York: Basic Books.
54. Duchet, M. 1971 Anthropologie et historie au siècle des lumières. Paris: Maspero.
55. Edmonson, M.S. 1965 A Measurement of Relative Racial Difference. Current Anthropology 6:167-198.
56. Edwards, A.W.F., and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza 1964 Reconstruction of Evolutionary Trees. In Phenetic and Phylogenetic Classification. V.E. Heywood and J. McNeill, eds., pp. 67-76. London: The Systematic Association.
57. Fisher, R.A. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford: Clarendon.
58. Foley, R. 1995 Humans before humanity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
59. Frayer, D.W., M.H. Wolpoff, A.G. Thorne, F.H. Smith, and G.G.Pope 1993 Theories of Modern Origins: The Paleontological Test. American Anthropologist 95:14-50.
60. Futuyma, D.J. 1979 Evolutionary Biology. Sunderland: Sinauer.
61. Gall, F.J. 1825 Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacune de ses parties. Paris: Balliëre.
62. Gardiner, A.H. 1947 Ancient Egyptian Onomastica. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
63. Garn, S.M. 1961 Human Races. Springfield: Thomas.
64. Garn, S.M. 1964 Comment on: On the Race Concept, by C.L. Brace. Current Anthropology 5:316.
65. Gates, R.R. 1963 Racial Genetics: A New Branch of Anthropology. Current Anthropology 4:208-209.
66. Geymonat, L. 1973 Storia del pensiero filosofico e scientifico. 2nd edition. Milano: Garzanti.
67. Gould, S.J. 1981 The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
68. Goodman, A.H., and G.J. Armelagos 1996 The Resurrection of Race: The Concept of Race in Physical Anthropology in the 1990s. In Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honour of Ashley Montagu. L.T. Reynolds and L. Lieberman, eds., pp. 174-186. Dix Hills: General Hall Publishers.
69. Greene, J.C. 1959 The Death of Adam. Evolution and Its Impact on Western Thought. Ames: The Iowa State University Press.
70. von Haeseler, A., A. Sajantila, and S. Pääbo 1995 The Genetical archaeology of the Human Genome. Nature Genetics 14:135-140.
71. Hammer, M.F 1995 A Recent Common Ancestry for Human Y Chromosomes. Nature 378:376-378.
72. Harpending, H 1995 Human Biological Diversity. Evolutionary Anthropology 4:99-103
73. Herder, J.G 1784-1791 Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit. Riga-Leipzig: Hartknoch.
74. Hiernaux, J 1962 Comment on: The Racial Analysis of Human Populations in Relation to Their Ethnogenesis, by A. Wiercinski. Current Anthropology 3:29-31.
75. Hiernaux, J 1963 Comment on: Geographic and Microgeographic Races, by M.T. Newman. Current Anthropology 4:198-199.
76. Hirszfeld, L., and H. Hirszfeld 1918-1919 Essai d'application des méthodes sérologiques au problème des races. Anthropologie 29:505-537.
77. Hsieh, C.L. and H.E. Sutton 1992 Mitochondrial and Nuclear Variants in a U.S. Black Population: Origins of a Hybrid Population. Annals of Human Genetics 56:105-112.
78. Hutton, J 1795 Theory of the Earth with Proof and Illustrations. Printed for Cadell, Junior, and Davies, London; and W. Creech, Edinburgh.
79. Huxley, J.S 1964 Comment on: On the Concept of Race, by C.L. Brace. Current Anthropology 5:316-317.
80. Huxley, T.H 1863 Evidence as to Man's place in nature. London: Williams & Norgate.
81. Jin L., P.A. Underhill, V. Doctor, R.W. Davis, P. Shen, L.L. Cavalli-Sforza and P.J. Oefner 1999 Distribution of haplotypes from a chromosome 21 region distinguishes multiple prehistoric human migrations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 96(7): 3796-3800.
82. Jorde L.B., A.R. Rogers, M. Bamshad, S.W. Watkins, P. Krakowiak, S. Sung, J. Kere and H.C. Harpending 1997 Microsatellite diversity and the demographic history of modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 94(7):3100-3103.
83. Kaessmann H., F. Heißig, A.Von Haeseler and S. Pääbo 1999 DNA sequence variation in a non-coding region of low recombination on the human X cromosome. Nature Genetics 22, 78-81.
84. Kant, I 1785 Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrasse. Berliner Monatsschrift (November).
85. Kant, I 1798 Anthropologie in pragmatischer Einsicht abgefasst. Koenigsberg: Nicolovius.
86. Keita, S.O.Y., and R.A. Kittles 1997 The Persistence of Racial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence. American Anthropologist 99:534-544.
87. Kennedy, K.A.R 1976 Human Variation in Space and Time. Dubuque: Brown.
88. Kennedy, K.A.R., and J. Chiment 1992 Racial Identification in the Context of Prehistoric-Historic Biological Continua: Examples from South Asia. Social Science and Medicine 34:119-123.
89. Kragh, H 1987 An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
90. Krings, M., A. Stone, R.W. Schmitz, H. Krainitzki, M. Stoneking, and S. Pääbo 1997 Neandertal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans. Cell 90:19-30.
91. Krogman, W.M., and M.Y. Iscan 1986 The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. 2nd edn. Springfield: Thomas.
92. Lasker, G.W 1962 Comment on: The Racial Analysis of Human Populations in Relation to Their Ethnogenesis, by A. Wiercinski. Current Anthropology 3:31-32.
93. Lewontin, R.C 1972 The Apportionment of Human Diversity. Evolutionary Biology 6:381-398.
94. Lewontin, R.C 1974 The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change. New York: Columbia University Press.
95. Lieberman, L., and F.L.C. Jackson 1995 Race and Three Models of Human Origin. American Anthropologist 97:231-242.
96. Lieberman, L., R.E. Hampton, A.L. Littlefield, and G. Hallead 1992 Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 29:301-321.
97. Lieberman, L 1968 The Debate Over Race: A Study in the Sociology of Knowledge. Phylon 39:127-141.
98. Lightfoot, J 1642 A few, and New Observations, upon the Book of Genesis. The most of them certaine, the rest probable, all harmelesse, strange, and rarely heard off before. London: T. Badger.
99. Lightfoot, J 1647 The Harmony, Chronicle and Order of the Old Testament. London: R. Cotes for John Clark.
100. Linnaeus, C 1735 Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. Lugduni Batavorum (now Leida): Ex Typographia Joannis Wilhelmi de Groot, apud Theodorum Haak.
101. Linnaeus, C 1789 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis,
102. Synonymis, Locis. Editio decima tertia. Cura Jo. Frid. Gmelin. Tomus I, Pars I. Lugduni (now Leida): apud J.B. Delamolliere.
103. Littlefield, A., L. Lieberman, and L.T. Reynolds 1982 Redefining Race: The Potential Demise of a Concept in Physical Anthropology. Current Anthropology 23:641-655.
104. Livingstone, F.B 1962 On the Non-Existence of Human Races. Current Anthropology 3:279-281.
105. Livingstone, F.B 1963 Comment on: Geographic and Microgeographic Races, by M.T. Newman. Current Anthropology 4:199-200.
106. Ludwig, E 1932 Colloqui con Mussolini. Milano: Mondadori. British edition: 1932: Talks with Mussolini. London: Allen & Unwin. American edition: 1933: Talks with Mussolini. Boston: Little-Brown.
107. Ludwig, E 1932 Colloqui con Mussolini. Milano: Mondadori. British edition: 1932: Talks with Mussolini. London: Allen & Unwin. American edition: 1933: Talks with Mussolini. Boston: Little-Brown.
108. Ludwig, E 1932 Colloqui con Mussolini. Milano: Mondadori. British edition: 1932: Talks with Mussolini. London: Allen & Unwin. American edition: 1933: Talks with Mussolini. Boston: Little-Brown.
109. Lyell, C 1830. Principles of Geology. London: J. Murray.
110. Mall, F.P 1909 On Several Anatomical Characters of the Human Brain, Said to Vary According to Race and Sex, with Especial Reference to the Weight of the Frontal Lobe. American Journal of Anatomy 9:1-33.
111. Martinez-Labarga, C., O. Rickards, R. Scacchi, R.M. Corbo, G. Biondi, J.A. Peña, C. Varas De Vieira, A.E.B. Guevara, M.S. Mesa Santurino, and G.F. De Stefano 1999 Genetic population structure of two African-American communities of Esmeraldas (Ecuador). American Journal of Physical Anthropology (in press).
112. Mead, M., T. Dobzhansky, E. Toback, and R.E. Light (eds.) 1968 Science and the Concept of Race. New York: Columbia University Press.
113. Menozzi, P., A. Piazza, and L.L. Cavalli-Sforza 1987 Synthetic maps of human gene frequencies in Europe. Science 201:786-792.
114. Montagu, M.F.A 1952 Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. 3rd edition. New York: Columbia University Press.
115. Montagu, M.F.A 1963 Comment on: Geographic and Microgeographic Races, by M.T. Newman. Current Anthropology 4:200-201.
116. Montagu, M.F.A (ed.) 1964 The Concept of Race. New York: Free Press.
117. Mourant, A.E 1954 The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups. Oxford: Blackwell.
118. Mourant, A.E., A.C. Kopec, and K. Domaniewska-Sobczak 1976 The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups and Other Polymorphisms. London: Oxford University Press.
119. Mukhopadhyay, C.C., and Y.T. Moses 1997 Re-establishing "Race" in Anthropological Discourse. American Anthropologist 99:517-533.
120. Murray, P., and L. Murray 1993 The Art of the Renaissance. 2nd edition. Singapore: Thames and Hudson.
121. Newman, M.T 1963 Geographic and Microgeographic Races. Current Anthropology 4:189-207.
122. Nei, M., and A.K. Roychoudhury 1974 Genetic Variation Within and Between the Three Major Races of Man, Caucasoids, Negroids, and Mongoloids. American Journal of Human Genetics 26:421-443.
123. Nei, M., and A.K. Roychoudhury 1982 Genetic Relationship and Evolution of Human Races. Evolutionary Biology 14:1-59.
124. Nei, M., and A.K. Roychoudhury 1988 Human Polymorphic Genes: World Distribution. New York: Oxford University Press.
125. Panofsky, E 1943 The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
126. Parra, E.J., A. Marcini, J. Akey, J. Martinson, M.A. Batzer, R. Cooper, T. Forrester, D.B. Allison, R. Deka, R.E. Ferrell and M.D. Shriver 1998 Estimating African American Admixture Proportions by Use of Population-Specific Alleles. American Journal of Human Genetics 63:1839-1851.
127. Popper, K.R 1934 Logik der Forschung. Wien: Springer. English translation: 1959: The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
128. Popper, K.R 1934 Logik der Forschung. Wien: Springer. English translation: 1959: The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
129. Pritchard, J.K., M.T. Seielstad, A. Perez-Lezaun and M.W. Feldman 1999 Population growth of human Y chromosomes: a study of Y chromosome microsatellites. Molecular Biology and Evolution 16:1791-1798.
130. Quattrone, A 1998 Quel cervellone di Georges Cuvier. Le Scienze 353 (gennaio):106.
131. Reed, T.E 1969 Caucasian Genes in American Negroes. Science 165:762-768.
132. Reynolds, L.T., and L. Lieberman (eds.) 1996 Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honour of Ashley Montagu. Dix Hills: General Hall Publishers.
133. Rossi, P 1997 La nascita della scienza moderna in Europa. Bari: Laterza. English translation: 1998: The Birth of Modern Science. Oxford: Blackwell.
134. Rossi, P 1997 La nascita della scienza moderna in Europa. Bari: Laterza. English translation: 1998: The Birth of Modern Science. Oxford: Blackwell.
135. Rushton, J.P 1995 Race, Evolution, and Behaviour: A Life History Perspective. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
136. Rushton, J.P., and A.F. Bogaert 1989 Population Differences in Susceptibility to AIDS: An Evolutionary Analysis. Social Science and Medicine 28:1211-1220.
137. Sauer, N.J 1992 Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why Are Forensic Anthropologists so Good at Identifying Them. Social Science and Medicine 34:107-111.
138. Sokal, R.R., N.L. Oden, and B.A. Thompson 1988 Genetic Changes Across Language Boundaries in Europe. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 76:337-361.
139. Steinberg, A.G., and C.E. Cook 1981 The Distribution of the Human Immunoglobulin Allotypes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
140. Sunderland, E 1975 Biological Components of the Races of Man. In Racial Variation in Man. F.J. Ebling, ed., pp. 9-25. London: The Institute of Biology. Distributed by - Oxford: Blackwell.
141. Thomson, R., J.K. Pritchard, P. Shen, P.J. Oefner and M.W. Feldman 2000 Recent common ancestry of human Y chromosomes: evidence from DNA sequence data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 97(13):7360-7365.
142. Thorne, A.G., and M.H. Wolpoff 1992 The Multiregional Evolution of Humans. Scientific American 4:76-83.
143. Tills, D., A.C. Kopec, and R.E. Tills 1983 The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups and Other Polymorphisms. Supplement 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
144. Tishkoff, S.A., E. Dietzsch, W. Speed, A.J. Pakstis, J.R. Kidd, K. Cheung, B. Bonné-Tamir, A.S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, P. Moral, M. Krings, S. Pääbo, E. Watson, N. Risch, T. Jenkins, and K.K. Kidd. 1996 Global Patterns of Linkage Disequilibrium at the CD4 Locus and Modern Human Origins. Science 271:1380-1387.
145. Underhill, P.A., P. Shen, A.A. Lin, L. Jin, G. Passarino, W.H. Yang, E. Kauffman, B. Bonné-Tamir, J. Bertranpetit, P. Francalacci, M. Ibrahim, T. Jenkins, J.R. Kidd, S.Q. Mehdi, M.T. Seilstad, R.S. Wells, A. Piazza, R.W. Davis, M.W. Feldman, L.L. Cavalli-Sforza and P.J. Oefner 2000 Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations. Nature Genetics 26:358-361.
146. Usher, J 1650. Annales Veteris Testamenti, a prima Mundi origine deducti: una cum rerum Asiaticarum et Aegyptiacarum chronico, a temporis historici principio usque ad Maccabaicorum initia producto. Londini (now London): Ex officina J. Flesher, and prostant apud L. Sadler.
147. Vigilant, L.M., M. Stoneking, H.C. Harpending, K. Hawkes, and A.C. Wilson 1991 African Populations and the Evolution of Human Mitochondrial DNA. Science 253:1503-1507.
148. Weidenreich, F 1947 The Trend of Human Evolution. Evolution 1:112-236.
149. Wiercinski, A 1962 The Racial Analysis of Human Populations in Relation to Their Ethnogenesis. Current Anthropology 3:2, 9-20.
150. Wilson, E.O., and W.L. Brown 1953 The Subspecies Concept and Its Taxonomic Application. Systematic Zoology 2:97-111.
151. Wolpoff, M.H., Wu Xin Zhi, and A.G. Thorne 1984 Modern Homo sapiens Origins: A General Theory of Hominid Evolution Involving the Fossil Evidence from East Asia. In The Origins of Modern Humans: A World Survey of the Fossil Evidence. F.H. Smith and F.Spencer, eds., pp. 411-483. New York: Liss.
152. Wolpoff, M.H 1993 Multiregional Evolution: The Fossil Alternative to Eden. In The Human Evolution Source Book. R.L. Ciochon and J.G. Fleagle, eds., pp. 476-497 Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
153. Young, J.Z 1971 An Introduction to the Study of Man. Oxford: Clarendon.