Culture as metaphor: Company culture and business strategy at Raleigh industries, c.1945-60

Business History

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 93-133

  Lloyd Jones, Roger ^a   Lewis, M J ^a   Eason, Mark ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039622535     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076799900000309     Document Type: Article

References (232)

1. Brown and Rose, for example, argue that 'easily the most important influence on [business] behaviour is shown to be culture'. J. Brown and M.B. Rose, 'Introduction', in J. Brown and M.B. Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business (Manchester, 1993), p.1; cited in J.F. Wilson, British Business History; 1720-1994 (Manchester, 1995), p.3.
2. Brown and Rose, for example, argue that 'easily the most important influence on [business] behaviour is shown to be culture'. J. Brown and M.B. Rose, 'Introduction', in J. Brown and M.B. Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business (Manchester, 1993), p.1; cited in J.F. Wilson, British Business History; 1720-1994 (Manchester, 1995), p.3.
3. M. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives on Organizations: (Cambridge, 1993), pp.9-26.
4. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
5. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
6. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
7. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
8. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
9. The concept of personal capitalism is, of course, very much identified with family founders who instilled a personal style of management into their company enterprises. The retention of personal capitalism in British enterprises is central to Chandler's critique of Britain's relative economic performance since the late nineteenth century. See A.D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 1990). Numerous studies have shown, however, that personal capitalism could bring positive advantages to the business enterprise. Indeed, family-owned business was not simply a characteristic of the British scene, but persisted in Germany, Japan and the USA. For recent critiques of Chandler's core generalisation concerning personal capitalism see, for example, R.A. Church, 'The Limitations of the Personal Capitalism Paradigm', Business History Review, Vol.64 (Winter 1990); idem, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism: International Perspectives on Hypothesis and History', Business History, Vol.35 No.4, Special Issue on Family Capitalism (1993); L. Hannah, 'Scale and Scope; Towards a European Invisible Hand?', Business History, Vol.33 No.2 (1991); R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism and British Industrial Decline; The Personally Managed Firm and Business Strategy in Sheffield, 1880-1920', Business History Review, Vol.68 (Autumn 1994); B. Supple, 'Scale and Scope: Alfred Chandler and the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism', Economic History Review, Vol.44 No.3 (1991).
10. Our historical approach thus emphasises 'the centrality of the human dimension' in examining company and industrial history. See R.A. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield: The Evolution of Managerial Culture in the British Motor Industry', Economic History Review, Vol.49 No.3 (1996), p.562.
11. In this sense, 'a creative and innovative business culture' may 'develop a successful strategy'. See T. Kono, 'Changing a Company's Strategy and Structure', Long Run Planning, Vol.27 (1994), p.85. However, it can equally frustrate business strategy and lead to uncertain outcomes.
12. This follows the research agenda of Coleman in 1987, who argued that 'efforts to build change into British business organisations will be aided by a fuller and more analytical understanding of the history of those organisations'. See D.C. Coleman, The Uses and Abuses of Business History', Business History, Vol.29 No.2 (1987), p.153.
13. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
14. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
15. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
16. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
17. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
18. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
19. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
20. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
21. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
22. For an examination of the origins of what has been called, by one writer, 'The Organizational Culture Craze', see G. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival: Software of the Mind (London, 1994), pp.179-80. The literature on company culture is now extensive, but of particular relevance to the study of business history, see Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives; M. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', in Brown and Rose (eds.), Entrepreneurship, Networks and Modern Business; Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield'; J. Griffiths, 'Give My Regards to "Uncle Billy": The Rites and Rituals of Company Life at Lever Brothers, c.1900-1990', Business History, Vol.37 No.4 (1995); J. Kay, Foundations of Business Success (London, 1993); K. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', Business and Economic History, Vol.32, No.2 (1995); M. Rowlinson, 'Strategy, Structure and Culture: Cadbury, Divisionalization and Merger in the 1960s', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.32 No.2 (1995); E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View (San Francisco, CA, 1985); O. Westall and A. Godley (eds.), Business History and Business Culture (Manchester, 1998).
23. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.179.
24. Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', p.2.
25. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield', p.582.
26. M.R. Louis, 'A Cultural Perspective on Organisation: The Need for and Consequence of Viewing Organisation as Culture-Bearing Milieux', Human Systems Management, Vol.2 (1981), p.250.
27. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, p.1. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.179, also argues that there is no standard definition of company culture.
28. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, p.1. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.179, also argues that there is no standard definition of company culture.
29. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, pp.1-2. Similarly Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', p.43, defines company culture as a 'collective subjectivity - a shared set of values, norms and beliefs'. See also Schein, Organizational Culture, p.110.
30. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, pp.1-2. Similarly Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', p.43, defines company culture as a 'collective subjectivity - a shared set of values, norms and beliefs'. See also Schein, Organizational Culture, p.110.
31. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, pp.1-2. Similarly Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', p.43, defines company culture as a 'collective subjectivity - a shared set of values, norms and beliefs'. See also Schein, Organizational Culture, p.110.
32. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, pp.180, 186.
33. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, pp.1-2, 120-21.
34. See ibid., pp.22-3.
35. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.18. This view is strongly emphasised by T. Peters and R. Waterman, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best Run Companies (New York, 1982), pp.75-6.
36. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.18. This view is strongly emphasised by T. Peters and R. Waterman, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best Run Companies (New York, 1982), pp.75-6.
37. Schein, Organizational Culture, p.30; As Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.180, argues, company culture is 'difficult to change although authors disagree on how difficult'; and Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', p.2, claims that 'a cultural approach can help us to understand stasis or failure'.
38. Schein, Organizational Culture, p.30; As Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.180, argues, company culture is 'difficult to change although authors disagree on how difficult'; and Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', p.2, claims that 'a cultural approach can help us to understand stasis or failure'.
39. Schein, Organizational Culture, p.30; As Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.180, argues, company culture is 'difficult to change although authors disagree on how difficult'; and Lipatito, 'Culture and the Practice of Business History', p.2, claims that 'a cultural approach can help us to understand stasis or failure'.
40. G. Dosi, R. Glannotti and P.A. Toninelli, 'Introduction: Theory and History of Technology and Business Forms, and the Microeconomics of Industrial Development', in G. Dosi et al. (eds.), Technology and Enterprise in Historical Perspective (Oxford, 1992), p.5.
41. For example, the histories of enterprises such as British Rail, Pilkingtons. Harland & Wolff, W.H. Smith, Courtaulds, Colvilles and ICI demonstrate that organisational reforms were implemented 'when market signals indicated that change was the necessary price of survival in the competitive economic system'. D.C. Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements: Some British Businesses, 1910-90', Business History, Vol.29, special edition (1987), pp.8-9; idem, 'Uses and Abuses', pp.152-4; M. Kirby, 'Institutional Rigidities and Economic Decline: Reflections on the British Experience', Economic History Review, Vol.45 No.4 (1992), p.642.
42. For example, the histories of enterprises such as British Rail, Pilkingtons. Harland & Wolff, W.H. Smith, Courtaulds, Colvilles and ICI demonstrate that organisational reforms were implemented 'when market signals indicated that change was the necessary price of survival in the competitive economic system'. D.C. Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements: Some British Businesses, 1910-90', Business History, Vol.29, special edition (1987), pp.8-9; idem, 'Uses and Abuses', pp.152-4; M. Kirby, 'Institutional Rigidities and Economic Decline: Reflections on the British Experience', Economic History Review, Vol.45 No.4 (1992), p.642.
43. For example, the histories of enterprises such as British Rail, Pilkingtons. Harland & Wolff, W.H. Smith, Courtaulds, Colvilles and ICI demonstrate that organisational reforms were implemented 'when market signals indicated that change was the necessary price of survival in the competitive economic system'. D.C. Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements: Some British Businesses, 1910-90', Business History, Vol.29, special edition (1987), pp.8-9; idem, 'Uses and Abuses', pp.152-4; M. Kirby, 'Institutional Rigidities and Economic Decline: Reflections on the British Experience', Economic History Review, Vol.45 No.4 (1992), p.642.
44. Schein, Company Culture, p.10.
45. Alvesson, Cultural Perspectives, p.2.
46. The importance of the role of family founders in shaping the history of British business enterprise is well documented in the literature. For example, see Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism'; Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements', pp.1-2; P.L. Payne, 'Family Business in Britain: An Historical and Analytical Survey', in A. Okochi and S. Yasuoka (eds.), Family Business in the Era of Industrial Growth (Tokyo, 1984).
47. The importance of the role of family founders in shaping the history of British business enterprise is well documented in the literature. For example, see Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism'; Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements', pp.1-2; P.L. Payne, 'Family Business in Britain: An Historical and Analytical Survey', in A. Okochi and S. Yasuoka (eds.), Family Business in the Era of Industrial Growth (Tokyo, 1984).
48. The importance of the role of family founders in shaping the history of British business enterprise is well documented in the literature. For example, see Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism'; Coleman, 'Failings and Achievements', pp.1-2; P.L. Payne, 'Family Business in Britain: An Historical and Analytical Survey', in A. Okochi and S. Yasuoka (eds.), Family Business in the Era of Industrial Growth (Tokyo, 1984).
49. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield', p.565. Company culture is often perceived in terms of rites and rituals which are socially determined by the groups who make up the organisation. See Hofstede, Software of the Mind, pp.179-80; Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; T. Deal and A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (Reading, MA, 1982).
50. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield', p.565. Company culture is often perceived in terms of rites and rituals which are socially determined by the groups who make up the organisation. See Hofstede, Software of the Mind, pp.179-80; Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; T. Deal and A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (Reading, MA, 1982).
51. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield', p.565. Company culture is often perceived in terms of rites and rituals which are socially determined by the groups who make up the organisation. See Hofstede, Software of the Mind, pp.179-80; Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; T. Deal and A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (Reading, MA, 1982).
52. Church, 'Demonstrating Nuffield', p.565. Company culture is often perceived in terms of rites and rituals which are socially determined by the groups who make up the organisation. See Hofstede, Software of the Mind, pp.179-80; Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; T. Deal and A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (Reading, MA, 1982).
53. Hofstede, Software of the Mind, p.183.
54. As Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism', p.18, writes: a 'family controlled enterprise ... refers to a firm in which the founders and their heirs recruited salaried managers but continued to be influential shareholders, held executive managerial positions, and exercised decisive influence on company policy'.
55. A.E. Harrison, 'The Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914', Economic History Review. Vol.22 No.2 (1969), p.287; G.H. Bowden, The Story of the Raleigh Cycle (Nottingham, 1975), p.13.
56. A.E. Harrison, 'The Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914', Economic History Review. Vol.22 No.2 (1969), p.287; G.H. Bowden, The Story of the Raleigh Cycle (Nottingham, 1975), p.13.
57. Nottingham County Archives (hereafter NCA), DDRN 7/2/27, List of Directors at Raleigh, 1887-1955.
58. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
59. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
60. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
61. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
62. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
63. List of Directors; I. Brown, Industrial Heritage Nottingham (Nottingham, 1989), p.56; NCA, DDRN 7/3/12, 50 Years of Leadership: Sturmey-Archer, 1902-52; DDRN 3/8/1-3/8/12, Raleigh Industries Ltd., Balance Sheets and Accounts Together With Reports (1949-60), 1950; DDRN 7/2/12, Sir Harold H. Bowden, Unpublished Manuscript of the History of Raleigh, n.d., pp.7, 16, 22-3, 26, 32; A.E. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', in D.J. Jeremy (ed.), Dictionary of Business Biography (London, 1984), Vol.1, pp.406-8. For a history of the early days of the company, see R. Lloyd-Jones and M.J. Lewis, Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry, 1870-1960 (forthcoming, 1999), Chapter 3. Bowden still remained active in the company in his capacity as honouree president. He died on the 24 Aug. 1960, aged 80; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
64. See, for example, G. Jones and M.B. Rose, 'Family Capitalism', Business History, Vol.35 No.4 (1994), special edition on family capitalism. Family firms also 'persisted in Germany probably as widely as in Britain, while in Japan the family firm based on an holding company structure was even more dominant than in either country'. Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism', p.39. The success of family enterprise in the USA is also demonstrated by the excellent work of P. Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930', Business History Review, Vol.65 (Spring 1991).
65. See, for example, G. Jones and M.B. Rose, 'Family Capitalism', Business History, Vol.35 No.4 (1994), special edition on family capitalism. Family firms also 'persisted in Germany probably as widely as in Britain, while in Japan the family firm based on an holding company structure was even more dominant than in either country'. Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism', p.39. The success of family enterprise in the USA is also demonstrated by the excellent work of P. Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930', Business History Review, Vol.65 (Spring 1991).
66. See, for example, G. Jones and M.B. Rose, 'Family Capitalism', Business History, Vol.35 No.4 (1994), special edition on family capitalism. Family firms also 'persisted in Germany probably as widely as in Britain, while in Japan the family firm based on an holding company structure was even more dominant than in either country'. Church, 'The Family Firm in Industrial Capitalism', p.39. The success of family enterprise in the USA is also demonstrated by the excellent work of P. Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930', Business History Review, Vol.65 (Spring 1991).
67. H. Bowden, unpublished manuscript, p.16.
68. This included Harold Bowden's own successor, George Wilson, who was appointed deputy chairman in 1950 'In view of the service he has given the company and of the zeal and energy which he has displayed for so many years in our interests'. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950.
69. Nottingham Central Library (hereafter NCL), Raligram, Jan. 1948, p.2. The training of managers in-house in family firms in Britain was a common practice before 1914, but was also evident in the USA and Japan. See S. Keeble, The Ability to Manage (Manchester, 1992), pp.17-35; P. Scranton, 'Learning Manufacture: Education and Shop-Floor Schooling in the Family Firm', Technology and Culture, Vol.27 No.1 (1986).
70. Nottingham Central Library (hereafter NCL), Raligram, Jan. 1948, p.2. The training of managers in-house in family firms in Britain was a common practice before 1914, but was also evident in the USA and Japan. See S. Keeble, The Ability to Manage (Manchester, 1992), pp.17-35; P. Scranton, 'Learning Manufacture: Education and Shop-Floor Schooling in the Family Firm', Technology and Culture, Vol.27 No.1 (1986).
71. Nottingham Central Library (hereafter NCL), Raligram, Jan. 1948, p.2. The training of managers in-house in family firms in Britain was a common practice before 1914, but was also evident in the USA and Japan. See S. Keeble, The Ability to Manage (Manchester, 1992), pp.17-35; P. Scranton, 'Learning Manufacture: Education and Shop-Floor Schooling in the Family Firm', Technology and Culture, Vol.27 No.1 (1986).
72. For a discussion on the use of the 'company story' in examining business culture, see J. Martin and C. Siehl, 'Organisational Culture and Counter Culture', Organisational Dynamics (Autumn 1993), p.59.
73. Schein, Organizational Culture, p.235.
74. A.D. Brown and K. Starkey, 'The Effect of Organisational Culture on Communication and Information', Journal of Management Studies, Vol.36 No.6 (1994), p.814.
75. Raligram, Sept. 1957, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.2.
76. Casson, 'Entrepreneurship and Business Culture', p.40.
77. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
78. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
79. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
80. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
81. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
82. Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management (Jan.-Feb. 1953), p.10; Bowden, unpublished manuscript, pp.34-5. During the inter-war years a number of British companies introduced 'welfarist strategies' as part of industrial relations policy as merger activity increased the scale of organisation. Further, paternalism was a common feature of industrial relations within British companies. See Wilson, British Business History, pp.159-60; H. Jones, 'Welfare Schemes and Industrial Relations in Inter-War Britain', Business Histroy, Vol.25 No.1 (1983); B. Morris and J. Smyth, 'Paternalism as an Employer Strategy, 1880-1960', in J. Rubery and F. Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy and the Labour Market (Cambridge, 1994). Indeed, Harold Bowden and been 'an active propagandist for a reconciliation between capital and labour' during the 1920s, and he continued to maintain 'a sympathetic and paternalistic relationship with his workforce'. Harrison, 'Sir Harold Bowden', p.408.
83. See Raligram, Jan. 1950, pp.2-3; March 1947, p.11.
84. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
85. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
86. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
87. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
88. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
89. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13. The use of education and training programmes as a device to recruit internally needs to be explored in more detail across the range of British industry. Yet, in companies such as Lucas Ltd, Phillips Electrical Ltd, Viyella International Ltd, and Pilkingtons, the phrase 'growing their own timber' was commonly used in managerial rhetoric. These were also companies who promoted education and training as the cornerstone of their recruitment policies. See A.B. Waring (Managing Director of Lucas), 'Training for Management Succession', Industrial Management and Personnel Management, Vol.35 (1953), pp.140-41; A.J. Nicol (Personnel Manager), 'Industrial Relations Within the Lucas Organisation', Personnel Management, Vol.42 (1960), p.257; NCL, Viyella International (Autumn 1965), p.8; B.V. Moore, 'Commercial Apprenticeship at Phillips Electrical Ltd', Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), pp.110-11. For Pilkingtons, see 'Welfare in a Family Business', Industrial Welfare and Personnel Management, Vol.43 (1961), p.15.
90. Raligram, April 1952, p.6; NCL, Nottingham Guardian Journal, 28 Dec. 1953; NCL, 162.9, Histories of Nottingham Companies, No.2.
91. Raligram, April 1952, p.6; NCL, Nottingham Guardian Journal, 28 Dec. 1953; NCL, 162.9, Histories of Nottingham Companies, No.2.
92. Raligram, April 1952, p.6; NCL, Nottingham Guardian Journal, 28 Dec. 1953; NCL, 162.9, Histories of Nottingham Companies, No.2.
93. The post-war labour governments encouraged enterprise to foster 'worker co-operation and involvement without infringing managerial prerogatives'. See J. Tomlinson, 'Mr. Attlee's Supply-side Socialism', Economic History Review, Vol.4 No.1 (1993), p.5.
94. This type of rhetoric was commonplace amongst British business leaders in the 1950s and 1960s. Thus, Sir Morris Lang, the President of the CBI, declared in 1965 that such expressions as "'Team Work", and "Working Together" are commonly used ... they are more than catch-phrases: they are important, and meaningful expressions of a concept which underlies the activities of ... business'. Cited in A. Fox, Industrial Sociology and Industrial Relations, Research Papers No.3 (1966), pp.3-4.
95. For a discussion of internal labour markets, see H.F. Gospel, Markets, Firms, and the Management of Labour in Modern Britain (Cambridge, 1992); J. Rubery, 'Internal and External Labour Markets: Towards an Integrated Analysis', in Rubery and Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy. Comparative studies of different managerial labour studies are also useful. See, for example, M. Sako, Japanese Labour and Management in Transition: Diversity, Flexibility and Participation (London, 1997).
96. For a discussion of internal labour markets, see H.F. Gospel, Markets, Firms, and the Management of Labour in Modern Britain (Cambridge, 1992); J. Rubery, 'Internal and External Labour Markets: Towards an Integrated Analysis', in Rubery and Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy. Comparative studies of different managerial labour studies are also useful. See, for example, M. Sako, Japanese Labour and Management in Transition: Diversity, Flexibility and Participation (London, 1997).
97. For a discussion of internal labour markets, see H.F. Gospel, Markets, Firms, and the Management of Labour in Modern Britain (Cambridge, 1992); J. Rubery, 'Internal and External Labour Markets: Towards an Integrated Analysis', in Rubery and Wilkinson (eds.), Employer Strategy. Comparative studies of different managerial labour studies are also useful. See, for example, M. Sako, Japanese Labour and Management in Transition: Diversity, Flexibility and Participation (London, 1997).
98. For an examination of this in other British companies, see Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; Rowlinson, 'Cadbury', p.123.
99. For an examination of this in other British companies, see Griffiths, 'Uncle Billy'; Rowlinson, 'Cadbury', p.123.
100. Brown and Starkey, 'The Effect of Organisational Culture', p.814.
101. Kaligram, March 1947, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950. For example, in a story entitled the 'Role of the Laboratory'. Kaligram informed its readers that 'the laboratory makes the necessary chemical, mechanical and microscopical examinations to ensure that the material is up to the proscribed quality which has for so many years been the proved standard for every Raleigh component'. Raligram, Jan. 1948, p.8.
102. Kaligram, March 1947, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950. For example, in a story entitled the 'Role of the Laboratory'. Kaligram informed its readers that 'the laboratory makes the necessary chemical, mechanical and microscopical examinations to ensure that the material is up to the proscribed quality which has for so many years been the proved standard for every Raleigh component'. Raligram, Jan. 1948, p.8.
103. For example, in 1898 the company urged customers to recognise that 'it will not be found possible to name any make of cycle possessing a higher degree of rigidity, lightness ... strength and general excellence, than the Raleigh'; and in 1901 informed customers that it would produce 'to suit the requirements of all countries and all pockets'. DDRN 4/10/1/5-6, The Book of the Raleigh for 1898. pp.7-8, and 1901, p.7. See also Bowden. unpublished manuscript, pp.26-7, 30-31. who refers to the same product attributes and customer relations in the 1920s and 1930s.
104. For example, in 1898 the company urged customers to recognise that 'it will not be found possible to name any make of cycle possessing a higher degree of rigidity, lightness ... strength and general excellence, than the Raleigh'; and in 1901 informed customers that it would produce 'to suit the requirements of all countries and all pockets'. DDRN 4/10/1/5-6, The Book of the Raleigh for 1898. pp.7-8, and 1901, p.7. See also Bowden. unpublished manuscript, pp.26-7, 30-31. who refers to the same product attributes and customer relations in the 1920s and 1930s.
105. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
106. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
107. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
108. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
109. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
110. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
111. Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14; Oct. 1958, p.5; Nov. 1957, p.20. The use of skilled craftsmen had been a key asset of the company from its outset. In the early part of the century the company claimed that the key to its success in the bicycle market was due to 'the skill of their mechanics; our men have no experience of the jerry built machines that affect other centres of the trade'. In particular, the 'trained mechanics' in the tool room were a crucial asset to the company. DDRN 4/10/1/6 and 4/10/1/8. Book of the Raleigh for 1901, p.5, and 1904, p.10. Workshop training and craft traditions may be associated with innovative corporate cultures, and it is a reminder that the route to business success is not simply determined by the utilisation of mass production methods and standardised output. A number of commentators have pointed to the innovative nature of custom and batch producers in the historical development of industrial capitalism. See, for example, Lloyd-Jones and Lewis, 'Personal Capitalism', pp.394-404; Scranton, 'Diversity in Diversity';
112. M.J. Piore and C.F. Sabel. The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (New York, 1984).
113. Kaligram, summer 1962. p.6.
114. See M. Bhargava, C. Dubelaar and S. Ramaswarmi. 'Reconciling Diverse Measures of Performance: A Conceptual Framework and Test of a Methodology', Journal of Business Research, Vol.31 (1994), pp.235-46.
115. Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1951. 54. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950, 1951, 1960 ; Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.25' Nov 1952 p.20.
116. Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1951. 54. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950, 1951, 1960 ; Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.25' Nov 1952 p.20.
117. Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1951. 54. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950, 1951, 1960 ; Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.25' Nov 1952 p.20.
118. Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1951. 54. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950, 1951, 1960 ; Raligram, Feb. 1952, p.25' Nov 1952 p.20.
119. Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.30; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953; NCL, Nottingham Evening News. 27 Aug. 1953; Nottingham Guardian. 11 Nov. 1952.
120. Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.30; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953; NCL, Nottingham Evening News. 27 Aug. 1953; Nottingham Guardian. 11 Nov. 1952.
121. Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.30; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953; NCL, Nottingham Evening News. 27 Aug. 1953; Nottingham Guardian. 11 Nov. 1952.
122. Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.30; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953; NCL, Nottingham Evening News. 27 Aug. 1953; Nottingham Guardian. 11 Nov. 1952.
123. M. Sako, Prices, Quality and Trust: Inter-Firm Relations in Britain and Japan (Cambridge, 1992), pp.40-41, 42.
124. Bowden, unpublished manuscript, p.28.
125. Economist, 21 Nov. 1953, pp.609-10; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953.
126. Economist, 21 Nov. 1953, pp.609-10; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1953.
127. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957. Similarly, the acquisition of the Triumph Cycle Co. in 1954 led to the company's products being sold under the Triumph trade marks. NCA, DDRN 1/2/6, Minutes of Board Meetings of Raleigh Industries Ltd, 9 Jan. 1954.
128. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957. Similarly, the acquisition of the Triumph Cycle Co. in 1954 led to the company's products being sold under the Triumph trade marks. NCA, DDRN 1/2/6, Minutes of Board Meetings of Raleigh Industries Ltd, 9 Jan. 1954.
129. Certainly, the multi-divisional approach, adopted by its main rival Tube Investments with its bicycle subsidiary BCC, was not adopted. See Economist. 23 Nov. 1955, p.735.
130. Minutes of Board, 11 Nov. 1949. Direct control in India was given to Sudhir Sumar Sen, a leading Indian bicycle distributor who had a long connection with Raleigh. He acted with his son as joint managing director, and three Raleigh directors were a so appointed to the board in an advisory capacity. As with the English subsidiaries, the Indian concern was largely autonomous and was managed independently. See Raligram, Jan. 1950, p.12
131. Minutes of Board, 11 Nov. 1949. Direct control in India was given to Sudhir Sumar Sen, a leading Indian bicycle distributor who had a long connection with Raleigh. He acted with his son as joint managing director, and three Raleigh directors were a so appointed to the board in an advisory capacity. As with the English subsidiaries, the Indian concern was largely autonomous and was managed independently. See Raligram, Jan. 1950, p.12
132. Minutes of Board, Aug. 1954;
133. Raligram, Jan. 1953, p.6.
134. Raligram, March 1947, p.5, Jan. 1948, p.8, July 1953, pp.10-11.
135. Raligram, Jan. 1950, p.12. An example of the number of machine operations was provided by Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14: to produce a four-speed gear hub took the time of 21 machines operations using 48 separate machine tools and 46 gauges to produce the axle alone, and a further 37 press tools and 22 gauges to produce the hub shell. All tools, machine attachments, and gauges were produced in the tool rooms.
136. Raligram, Jan. 1950, p.12. An example of the number of machine operations was provided by Raligram, Sept. 1949, p.14: to produce a four-speed gear hub took the time of 21 machines operations using 48 separate machine tools and 46 gauges to produce the axle alone, and a further 37 press tools and 22 gauges to produce the hub shell. All tools, machine attachments, and gauges were produced in the tool rooms.
137. Ibid., July 1953, pp.10-11.
138. Ibid Feb. 1951, p.8;Feb. 1952, p.2;Sept. 1957, p.2.
139. Ibid., Feb. 1950, p.12; Dec. 1954. p.14.
140. See G.R. Schenk, 'Austerity and Boom', in P. Jonhson (ed.), Twentieth Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change (London, 1994), p.312; S. Pollard, The Wasting of the British Economy (London, 1994), p.37; 'Economic Survey for 1951', Ministry of Labour Gazette, Vol.59 (1951), p.141.
141. See G.R. Schenk, 'Austerity and Boom', in P. Jonhson (ed.), Twentieth Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change (London, 1994), p.312; S. Pollard, The Wasting of the British Economy (London, 1994), p.37; 'Economic Survey for 1951', Ministry of Labour Gazette, Vol.59 (1951), p.141.
142. See G.R. Schenk, 'Austerity and Boom', in P. Jonhson (ed.), Twentieth Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change (London, 1994), p.312; S. Pollard, The Wasting of the British Economy (London, 1994), p.37; 'Economic Survey for 1951', Ministry of Labour Gazette, Vol.59 (1951), p.141.
143. Economist, 5 Jan. 1952, p.52; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1950; Minutes of Board, 21 Oct. 1951; 13 Feb. 1952.
144. Economist, 5 Jan. 1952, p.52; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1950; Minutes of Board, 21 Oct. 1951; 13 Feb. 1952.
145. Economist, 5 Jan. 1952, p.52; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1950; Minutes of Board, 21 Oct. 1951; 13 Feb. 1952.
146. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950; Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.2. In December 1954, Bowden announced that 71.5 per cent of total profits would be retained in the business 'In view of our programme for the extension of our factories'. A year earlier Bowden had complained about high levels of taxation which 'made it almost impossible for a company to retain sufficient costs to support the expansion of its business'. Economist, 25 Dec. 1954, p.122; 3 Jan. 1953, p.51.
147. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950; Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.2. In December 1954, Bowden announced that 71.5 per cent of total profits would be retained in the business 'In view of our programme for the extension of our factories'. A year earlier Bowden had complained about high levels of taxation which 'made it almost impossible for a company to retain sufficient costs to support the expansion of its business'. Economist, 25 Dec. 1954, p.122; 3 Jan. 1953, p.51.
148. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1950; Raligram, Feb. 1953, p.2. In December 1954, Bowden announced that 71.5 per cent of total profits would be retained in the business 'In view of our programme for the extension of our factories'. A year earlier Bowden had complained about high levels of taxation which 'made it almost impossible for a company to retain sufficient costs to support the expansion of its business'. Economist, 25 Dec. 1954, p.122; 3 Jan. 1953, p.51.
149. Minutes of Board, 16 Oct. 1950; Raligram, March 1951, p.3. Sturmey-Archer was founded in 1903 by Frank Bowden, and immediately gained a world-wide reputation for supplying patented three-speed gears to both cycle manufacturers and the emerging motor cycle trade. Bowden unoublished manuscript, pp.19-21.
150. Minutes of Board, 16 Oct. 1950; Raligram, March 1951, p.3. Sturmey-Archer was founded in 1903 by Frank Bowden, and immediately gained a world-wide reputation for supplying patented three-speed gears to both cycle manufacturers and the emerging motor cycle trade. Bowden unoublished manuscript, pp.19-21.
151. Minutes of Board, 16 Oct. 1950; Raligram, March 1951, p.3. Sturmey-Archer was founded in 1903 by Frank Bowden, and immediately gained a world-wide reputation for supplying patented three-speed gears to both cycle manufacturers and the emerging motor cycle trade. Bowden unoublished manuscript, pp.19-21.
152. Minutes of Board, 22 Feb. 1950; 9 June 1953; NCA, DDRN 1267/2 Reports of Directors and Statements of Accounts, 1955; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1957.
153. Minutes of Board, 22 Feb. 1950; 9 June 1953; NCA, DDRN 1267/2 Reports of Directors and Statements of Accounts, 1955; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1957.
154. Minutes of Board, 22 Feb. 1950; 9 June 1953; NCA, DDRN 1267/2 Reports of Directors and Statements of Accounts, 1955; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1957.
155. Minutes of Board, 22 Feb. 1950; 9 June 1953; NCA, DDRN 1267/2 Reports of Directors and Statements of Accounts, 1955; Balance Sheet ... With Reports, 1957.
156. Economist, 26 Dec. 1953, p.922.
157. Raligram, Feb. 1956, p.18.
158. Ibid., p.18: Brown and Starkey, 'The Effect of Organisational Culture , p.815.
159. Ibid., p.18: Brown and Starkey, 'The Effect of Organisational Culture , p.815.
160. Minutes of Board, 1 Oct. 1953.
161. A. Baron, 'Winning Ways With Culture', Personnel Management, Vol.26 No.5 (1994).
162. Economist, 21 Nov. 1953, p.609; 25 Sept. 1954, pp.1004, 1006. Raleigh also referred to import restrictions affecting its markets in Indonesia, India, South Africa, Eire, Brazil, Argentina,Mexico, Economist, 28 Nov. 1959, p.1105.
163. Economist, 21 Nov. 1953, p.609; 25 Sept. 1954, pp.1004, 1006. Raleigh also referred to import restrictions affecting its markets in Indonesia, India, South Africa, Eire, Brazil, Argentina,Mexico, Economist, 28 Nov. 1959, p.1105.
164. Economist, 21 Nov. 1953, p.609; 25 Sept. 1954, pp.1004, 1006. Raleigh also referred to import restrictions affecting its markets in Indonesia, India, South Africa, Eire, Brazil, Argentina,Mexico, Economist, 28 Nov. 1959, p.1105.
165. Minutes of Board, 22 July 1953.
166. Raligram, July 1958, pp.2-5. A considerable effort was put into African markets and Wilson made extensive visits in early 1958.
167. Economist, 13 Dec. 1958, p.742;
168. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1958.
169. Economist, 22 Nov. 1958, p.742.
170. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957.
171. Alvesson, Organisational Culture, p.20.
172. Raligram Aug. 1950 p.8; Nov. 1961. p.2.
173. Ibid March 1947, p.32. It is interesting to note that no training facilities were provided for female employees as 'The immediate need is for men and our efforts ... have been directed to this end'. Ibid., April 1957, p.22.
174. Ibid March 1947, p.32. It is interesting to note that no training facilities were provided for female employees as 'The immediate need is for men and our efforts ... have been directed to this end'. Ibid., April 1957, p.22.
175. Raligram Aug 1948, p.13. For an examination of vocational education and training in post-war Britain, see D.H. Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, 1944-1990 (Manchester, 1992), pp.52-74.
176. Raligram Aug 1948, p.13. For an examination of vocational education and training in post-war Britain, see D.H. Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, 1944-1990 (Manchester, 1992), pp.52-74.
177. See, for example, NCL, Peoples College Nottingham: Prospectus, 1949-50, p.7.
178. Raligram, March 1947, p.32; Aug. 1948, p.13; July 1961, p.1. The introduction of the schemes for education on a voluntary basis in 1947 show a quick response by management to government guidelines issued after the 1946 Education Act.
179. Ibid., Jan. 1949, p.2; Aug. 1948, p.13.
180. See Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, pp.53-60; K. Burgess, 'British Employers and Education Policy, 1935-45: A Decade of "Missed Opportunities"', Business History, Vol.36 No.3 (1994), pp.53-4.
181. See Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, pp.53-60; K. Burgess, 'British Employers and Education Policy, 1935-45: A Decade of "Missed Opportunities"', Business History, Vol.36 No.3 (1994), pp.53-4.
182. See K. Liepmann, Apprenticeship: An Enquiry into its Adequacy in Modern Conditions (London, 1960), pp.90-94.
183. Raligram, July 1961, p.1. Education and training took on national significance in the post-war years in the face of skill shortages, especially in relation to the provision of technical education. See M. Davis, Technology, Institutions and Status: Technological Education. Debate and Policy', in P. Summerfield and E.J. Evans (eds.), Technical Education and the State since 1850: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Manchester, 1990).
184. Raligram, July 1961, p.1. Education and training took on national significance in the post-war years in the face of skill shortages, especially in relation to the provision of technical education. See M. Davis, Technology, Institutions and Status: Technological Education. Debate and Policy', in P. Summerfield and E.J. Evans (eds.), Technical Education and the State since 1850: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Manchester, 1990).
185. Raligram, May 1948, p.36; Sept. 1948, p.33; May 1950, p.15; April 1957, p.21. A number of well-known British companies, such as Rolls Royce, ICI, Courtaulds, English Electric, Dunlop, AEI and Unilever, developed formal training schemes training for their employees in the post-war years, but the majority of firms 'had very little provision for training new recruits'. Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, p.55.
186. Raligram, May 1948, p.36; Sept. 1948, p.33; May 1950, p.15; April 1957, p.21. A number of well-known British companies, such as Rolls Royce, ICI, Courtaulds, English Electric, Dunlop, AEI and Unilever, developed formal training schemes training for their employees in the post-war years, but the majority of firms 'had very little provision for training new recruits'. Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, p.55.
187. Aldcroft, Education, Training and Economic Performance, p.57, is highly critical of the British system of apprenticeship, arguing that it 'seemed curiously resistant to change and adaptation to meet the needs of changing industrial society'.
188. Raligram, Jan. 1950, pp.2-3.
189. The definitions are drawn from P.F.R. Venables and W.J. Williams, Technical Education and the Smaller Firm (London, 1961), pp.72-3; Sir G. Crowther (Crowther Report), Ministry of Education 15-18: A Report of the General Advisory Council for Further Education (London, 1959), p.327.
190. The definitions are drawn from P.F.R. Venables and W.J. Williams, Technical Education and the Smaller Firm (London, 1961), pp.72-3; Sir G. Crowther (Crowther Report), Ministry of Education 15-18: A Report of the General Advisory Council for Further Education (London, 1959), p.327.
191. F. Gospel and R. Okayama, 'Industrial Training in Great Britain and Japan: An Overview', in H.F. Gospel (ed.), Industrial Training and Technical Innovation: A Comparative and Historical Study (London, 1991), p.28, have suggested that the notion of training apprentices for functional rather than design capabilities was a problem for British industry generally. Davis, 'Technology, Institutions and Status', p.140, also claims that shortages of technologists in the 1950s may have resulted 'in failures to design'.
192. F. Gospel and R. Okayama, 'Industrial Training in Great Britain and Japan: An Overview', in H.F. Gospel (ed.), Industrial Training and Technical Innovation: A Comparative and Historical Study (London, 1991), p.28, have suggested that the notion of training apprentices for functional rather than design capabilities was a problem for British industry generally. Davis, 'Technology, Institutions and Status', p.140, also claims that shortages of technologists in the 1950s may have resulted 'in failures to design'.
193. Raligram, Jan. 1960, p.4.
194. Alvesson, Organizational Culture, p.20.
195. Raligram, Jan. 1958, p.8: Economist, 30 April 1955, p.400.
196. Raligram, Jan. 1958, p.8: Economist, 30 April 1955, p.400.
197. Raligram, summer 1962, p.6.
198. Economist, 17 Dec. 1955, p.1199. From 1921 to 1935 the company had produced a limited range of small cars and vans, as well as motor cycles. By 1935, however, this was putting a strain on the company's skilled labour resource and existing plant capacity. Thus, 'the bold step' was taken to concentrate resources on bicycles and accessories, and this further allowed the company to pursue a strategy of vertical integration, reducing the dependency on outside suppliers for strip steel and components. Bowden, unpublished manuscript pp.35-6.
199. Economist, 17 Dec. 1955, p.1199. From 1921 to 1935 the company had produced a limited range of small cars and vans, as well as motor cycles. By 1935, however, this was putting a strain on the company's skilled labour resource and existing plant capacity. Thus, 'the bold step' was taken to concentrate resources on bicycles and accessories, and this further allowed the company to pursue a strategy of vertical integration, reducing the dependency on outside suppliers for strip steel and components. Bowden, unpublished manuscript pp.35-6.
200. Reports of Directors, 1955.
201. Economist, 17 Dec. 1955, p.1199; 30 April 1955, p.400; 28 Nov. 1959, p.917. Further, by concentrating on mopeds it had missed out on the growing scooter market which had increased from an output (domestic and foreign) of 6,000 units in 1953 to 67,700 units in 1957. Economist, 11 Jan. 1958, p.147
202. Economist, 17 Dec. 1955, p.1199; 30 April 1955, p.400; 28 Nov. 1959, p.917. Further, by concentrating on mopeds it had missed out on the growing scooter market which had increased from an output (domestic and foreign) of 6,000 units in 1953 to 67,700 units in 1957. Economist, 11 Jan. 1958, p.147
203. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960.
204. For a discussion of these issues, see S. Raghuran, 'Linking Staffing and Training Practices With Business Strategy: A Theoretical Perspective', Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol.5 (1994), p.249.
205. Gospel, Markets, Firms and the Management of Labour, p.8. Gospel considers, however, that on the whole the advantages of internal labour markets outweigh their disadvantages.
206. Raligram, July 1956, p.8; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956.
207. Raligram, July 1956, p.8; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956.
208. Raligram, July 1953, p.30.
209. Ibid., July 1956, p.8; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956.
210. Ibid., July 1956, p.8; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956.
211. Raligram, Oct. 1958, p.30; April 1957, p.6; July 1956, p.8.
212. See Griffiths, '"Uncle Billy"', p.38. who finds similar problems at Lever Bros, by the early 1960s.
213. Nottingham Evening Post, 25 Sept. 1957; Raligram, Nov. 1957, pp.2-4
214. Nottingham Evening Post, 25 Sept. 1957; Raligram, Nov. 1957, pp.2-4
215. Reports of Directors, 1959; Raligram, Jan. 1960, p.15. Significantly, a new training officer, D. Courtney Taylor, who was head of the Institute of Management, and had extensive experience at Standard Telephones, Imperial Tobacco and British Celanese, was brought in to supervise a new training department. Raligram, April 1960, p.11.
216. Reports of Directors, 1959; Raligram, Jan. 1960, p.15. Significantly, a new training officer, D. Courtney Taylor, who was head of the Institute of Management, and had extensive experience at Standard Telephones, Imperial Tobacco and British Celanese, was brought in to supervise a new training department. Raligram, April 1960, p.11.
217. Reports of Directors, 1959; Raligram, Jan. 1960, p.15. Significantly, a new training officer, D. Courtney Taylor, who was head of the Institute of Management, and had extensive experience at Standard Telephones, Imperial Tobacco and British Celanese, was brought in to supervise a new training department. Raligram, April 1960, p.11.
218. Economist, 29 Sept. 1956, p.1081; 18 Jan. 1958, p.196; 22 Nov. 1958, p.735.
219. Raligram, Nov. 1957, pp.2-4.
220. Ibid., p.3. The magazine also produced a series of photographs with the aim of showing how palletisation reduced the intensity of manual labour.
221. Ibid., July 1961, p.8; Jan. 1962, p.66; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956, 1959; Economist, 11 Jan. 1958, p.147; 18 Jan. 1958, p.196.
222. Ibid., July 1961, p.8; Jan. 1962, p.66; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956, 1959; Economist, 11 Jan. 1958, p.147; 18 Jan. 1958, p.196.
223. Ibid., July 1961, p.8; Jan. 1962, p.66; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1956, 1959; Economist, 11 Jan. 1958, p.147; 18 Jan. 1958, p.196.
224. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957.
225. Ibid.
226. Raligram, April 1959, p.1.
227. See ibid., Jan. 1959, p.18.
228. Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1957.
229. Ibid., 1958.
230. Raligram, Jan. 1961, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
231. Raligram, Jan. 1961, p.2; Balance Sheets ... With Reports, 1960.
232. Schein, Organizational Culture, p.10.