From international ideas to domestic policies: Educational multiculturalism in England and France

Comparative Politics

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 81-100

  Bleich, Erik ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038913894     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422107     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. See especially Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1993); Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and James F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
2. See especially Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1993); Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and James F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
3. See especially Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions and Political Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1993); Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and James F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
4. See Peter A. Hall, ed., The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism across Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Jeffrey T. Checkel, "International Norms and Domestic Institutions: Identity Politics in Post-Cold War Europe," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, August 30-September 3, 1995; and Soysal.
5. See Peter A. Hall, ed., The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism across Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Jeffrey T. Checkel, "International Norms and Domestic Institutions: Identity Politics in Post-Cold War Europe," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, August 30-September 3, 1995; and Soysal.
6. Though now it is more salient in the sphere of political theory than in education policy. See especially Amy Gutmann, ed., Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); and Christian Joppke, "Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the United States, Germany, and Great Britain," Theory and Society, 25 (August 1996), 449-500.
7. Though now it is more salient in the sphere of political theory than in education policy. See especially Amy Gutmann, ed., Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); and Christian Joppke, "Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the United States, Germany, and Great Britain," Theory and Society, 25 (August 1996), 449-500.
8. Though now it is more salient in the sphere of political theory than in education policy. See especially Amy Gutmann, ed., Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); and Christian Joppke, "Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the United States, Germany, and Great Britain," Theory and Society, 25 (August 1996), 449-500.
9. On the independent influence of the state (and its bureaucrats), see especially Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974).
10. Laïque can be translated as "lay," although in France it is a historically loaded term which approximates America's "separation of church and state."
11. For a concise introduction, see Nathan Glazer's contribution in Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), ed., Multicultural Education (Paris: OECD, 1987).
12. See Stacy Churchill, in CERI, ed., p. 92.
13. European Commission, Community of Learning: Intercultural Education in Europe (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1994). These policies and expenditures remain relatively limited.
14. See John Rex, "The Concept of a Multi-Cultural Society," New Community, 14 (Autumn 1987), 218-29; and Joppke.
15. Classifying policies based on their intent is sometimes difficult. For example, a preparationist and a multiculturalist (and even some assimilationists) may agree that mother-tongue teaching for minorities is an appropriate policy, but for different reasons. The issue of intent, however, is crucial to common understandings of multiculturalism and must therefore be taken into account.
16. Willey, cited in Gajendra K. Verma, "Multiculturalism and Education: Prelude to Practice," in Gajendra K. Verma and Christopher Bagley, eds., Race Relations and Cultural Differences: Educational and Interpersonal Perspectives (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 61.
17. E. J. B. Rose, Colour and Citizenship (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 403.
18. Jørgen S. Nielsen, "Muslims in Britain and Local Authority Responses," in Tomas Gerholm and Yngve Georg Lithman, eds., The New Islamic Presence in Western Europe (London: Mansell Publishing, 1988), p. 69.
19. Sally Tomlinson, Ethnic Minorities in British Schools: A Review of the Literature, 1960-82 (London: Policy Studies Institute/Heinemann Educational Books, 1983), p. 16.
20. Ibid., p. 17.
21. Ibid., p. 12.
22. Gary P. Freeman, Immigrant Labor and Racial Conflict in Industrial Societies: The French and British Experience 1945-1975 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 57.
23. On the commonly cited triptych of educational policy phases, assimilation, integration, cultural pluralism, see Barry Troyna and Bruce Carrington, Education, Racism and Reform (London: Routledge, 1990); and Madeleine Arnot, ed., Equal Opportunities Policies in Education (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985).
24. On the commonly cited triptych of educational policy phases, assimilation, integration, cultural pluralism, see Barry Troyna and Bruce Carrington, Education, Racism and Reform (London: Routledge, 1990); and Madeleine Arnot, ed., Equal Opportunities Policies in Education (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985).
25. See Danièle Joly, Britannia's Crescent: Making a Place for Muslims in British Society (Aldershot: Avebury, 1995), p. 16; Jørgen S. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992), p. 54.
26. See Danièle Joly, Britannia's Crescent: Making a Place for Muslims in British Society (Aldershot: Avebury, 1995), p. 16; Jørgen S. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992), p. 54.
27. Owen Cole, "Religious Education after Swann," in Bernadette O'Keeffe, ed., Schools for Tomorrow: Building Walls or Building Bridges (London: The Falmer Press, 1988), p. 126.
28. Verma, p. 66; on the EEC Directive, see Stacy Churchill, The Education of Linguistic and Cultural Minorities in the OECD Countries (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1986).
29. Verma, p. 66; on the EEC Directive, see Stacy Churchill, The Education of Linguistic and Cultural Minorities in the OECD Countries (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1986).
30. See Department of Education and Science Green Paper, "Education in Schools" (1977), discussed in Verma, p. 63, and the 1978 Home Office report, which states that the curriculum "must reflect the wide range of cultures, histories and life styles in our multi-racial society," cited in Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams, Racism, Education and the State (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 25. See also Great Britain, Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration, Education, vol. 1 (London: HMSO, 1973).
31. See Department of Education and Science Green Paper, "Education in Schools" (1977), discussed in Verma, p. 63, and the 1978 Home Office report, which states that the curriculum "must reflect the wide range of cultures, histories and life styles in our multi-racial society," cited in Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams, Racism, Education and the State (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 25. See also Great Britain, Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration, Education, vol. 1 (London: HMSO, 1973).
32. See Department of Education and Science Green Paper, "Education in Schools" (1977), discussed in Verma, p. 63, and the 1978 Home Office report, which states that the curriculum "must reflect the wide range of cultures, histories and life styles in our multi-racial society," cited in Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams, Racism, Education and the State (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 25. See also Great Britain, Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration, Education, vol. 1 (London: HMSO, 1973).
33. See Troyna and Williams; Arnot, ed.
34. There are a few more than one hundred local education authorities in England and Wales; they have substantial powers over education policy in their districts.
35. See Monica J. Taylor, Multicultural Antiracist Education after ERA: Concerns, Constraints and Challenges (Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 1992). She received responses from ninety-three of the 108 then-existing local education authorities.
36. Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons, Education for All: The Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups (The Swann Report) (London: HMSO, 1985), p. 316 (emphasis in original).
37. Ibid., p. 769.
38. Sally Tomlinson, Multicultural Education in White Schools (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 106.
39. See Sally Tomlinson, "The 'Black Education' Movement," in Arnot, ed., p. 74; Barry Troyna, "Reform or Deform? The 1988 Education Reform Act and Racial Equality in Britain," New Community, 16 (April 1990), 403-16.
40. See Sally Tomlinson, "The 'Black Education' Movement," in Arnot, ed., p. 74; Barry Troyna, "Reform or Deform? The 1988 Education Reform Act and Racial Equality in Britain," New Community, 16 (April 1990), 403-16.
41. Tomlinson Multicultural Education, pp. 35-41; Mark Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: An Examination of the Honeyford Affair, 1984-85 (London: The Falmer Press, 1988); and Marcus Banks, Ethnicity: Anthropological Constructions (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 171-78.
42. Tomlinson Multicultural Education, pp. 35-41; Mark Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: An Examination of the Honeyford Affair, 1984-85 (London: The Falmer Press, 1988); and Marcus Banks, Ethnicity: Anthropological Constructions (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 171-78.
43. Tomlinson Multicultural Education, pp. 35-41; Mark Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: An Examination of the Honeyford Affair, 1984-85 (London: The Falmer Press, 1988); and Marcus Banks, Ethnicity: Anthropological Constructions (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 171-78.
44. Taylor, p. 11.
45. This judgment is based on interviews with senior educational policy officers in three inner London boroughs.
46. To paraphrase Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976).
47. In CERI, ed., p. 25.
48. See Dominique Schnapper, La France de l'Intégration (Paris: Gallimard, 1991).
49. See Alain Seksig, "Que peut l'école contre le racisme?," in Pierre-André Taguieff, ed., Face au Racisme: Les Moyens d'Agir (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1991), pp. 85-100; Françoise Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés: État des lieux et état des questions en France," Confluences Méditerranée, 14 (Spring 1995), 25-57; Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, "Immigrant Children in French Schools: Equality or Discrimination," in Lotty Eldering and Jo Kloprogge, eds., Different Cultures, Same School: Ethnic Minority Children in Europe (Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1989), pp. 61-84; Willem Fase, Ethnic Divisions in Western European Education (New York: Waxmann Münster, 1994); Danielle Boyzon-Frader, "The French Education System: Springboard or Obstacle to Integration?," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gérard Noiriel, eds., Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 148-66. The fact that mother-tongue language classes are part of international agreements suggests that the initiative for these diversity policies was not wholly French.
50. See Alain Seksig, "Que peut l'école contre le racisme?," in Pierre-André Taguieff, ed., Face au Racisme: Les Moyens d'Agir (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1991), pp. 85-100; Françoise Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés: État des lieux et état des questions en France," Confluences Méditerranée, 14 (Spring 1995), 25-57; Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, "Immigrant Children in French Schools: Equality or Discrimination," in Lotty Eldering and Jo Kloprogge, eds., Different Cultures, Same School: Ethnic Minority Children in Europe (Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1989), pp. 61-84; Willem Fase, Ethnic Divisions in Western European Education (New York: Waxmann Münster, 1994); Danielle Boyzon-Frader, "The French Education System: Springboard or Obstacle to Integration?," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gérard Noiriel, eds., Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 148-66. The fact that mother-tongue language classes are part of international agreements suggests that the initiative for these diversity policies was not wholly French.
51. See Alain Seksig, "Que peut l'école contre le racisme?," in Pierre-André Taguieff, ed., Face au Racisme: Les Moyens d'Agir (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1991), pp. 85-100; Françoise Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés: État des lieux et état des questions en France," Confluences Méditerranée, 14 (Spring 1995), 25-57; Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, "Immigrant Children in French Schools: Equality or Discrimination," in Lotty Eldering and Jo Kloprogge, eds., Different Cultures, Same School: Ethnic Minority Children in Europe (Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1989), pp. 61-84; Willem Fase, Ethnic Divisions in Western European Education (New York: Waxmann Münster, 1994); Danielle Boyzon-Frader, "The French Education System: Springboard or Obstacle to Integration?," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gérard Noiriel, eds., Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 148-66. The fact that mother-tongue language classes are part of international agreements suggests that the initiative for these diversity policies was not wholly French.
52. See Alain Seksig, "Que peut l'école contre le racisme?," in Pierre-André Taguieff, ed., Face au Racisme: Les Moyens d'Agir (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1991), pp. 85-100; Françoise Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés: État des lieux et état des questions en France," Confluences Méditerranée, 14 (Spring 1995), 25-57; Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, "Immigrant Children in French Schools: Equality or Discrimination," in Lotty Eldering and Jo Kloprogge, eds., Different Cultures, Same School: Ethnic Minority Children in Europe (Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1989), pp. 61-84; Willem Fase, Ethnic Divisions in Western European Education (New York: Waxmann Münster, 1994); Danielle Boyzon-Frader, "The French Education System: Springboard or Obstacle to Integration?," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gérard Noiriel, eds., Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 148-66. The fact that mother-tongue language classes are part of international agreements suggests that the initiative for these diversity policies was not wholly French.
53. See Alain Seksig, "Que peut l'école contre le racisme?," in Pierre-André Taguieff, ed., Face au Racisme: Les Moyens d'Agir (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1991), pp. 85-100; Françoise Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés: État des lieux et état des questions en France," Confluences Méditerranée, 14 (Spring 1995), 25-57; Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, "Immigrant Children in French Schools: Equality or Discrimination," in Lotty Eldering and Jo Kloprogge, eds., Different Cultures, Same School: Ethnic Minority Children in Europe (Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1989), pp. 61-84; Willem Fase, Ethnic Divisions in Western European Education (New York: Waxmann Münster, 1994); Danielle Boyzon-Frader, "The French Education System: Springboard or Obstacle to Integration?," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gérard Noiriel, eds., Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 148-66. The fact that mother-tongue language classes are part of international agreements suggests that the initiative for these diversity policies was not wholly French.
54. Boyzon-Frader, p. 157.
55. Patrick Weil, La France et Ses Étrangers: L'Aventure d'une Politique de l'Immigration de 1938 à Nos Jours (Paris: Gallimard, 1995), p. 437.
56. Seksig, p. 90.
57. See Weil, pp. 380-87; and Seksig, pp. 91-95.
58. Cited in Seksig, p. 92.
59. Intercultural is the French equivalent of "multicultural," the very word multicultural being anathema to many in France. On the rise of interculturalism (and for a strong critique of it), see Seksig, pp. 95-98.
60. Françoise Henry-Lorcerie, "Enfants d'immigrés et école française: À propos du mot d'ordre de pédagogie interculturelle," in Larbi Talha, ed., Maghrébins en France: Émigrés ou Immigrés? (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1983), pp. 267-98.
61. See Adrian Favell, Philosophies of Integration: Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain (London: Macmillan, 1997).
62. Jacques Berque, L'Immigration à l'École de la République (Paris: La Documentation Française, Centre National de Documentation Pédagogique, 1985), p. 57.
63. For some exceptions, see Boyzon-Frader, p. 159, where she mentions a 1989 ministry of education project to encourage schools to stress the "foreign contributions to French heritage." See also Seksig, p. 97. On the resurgence of integrationism, see Lorcerie, "Scolarisation des enfants d'immigrés."
64. Schnapper, p. 351.
65. See Gérard Noiriel, Le Creuset Français: Histoire de I'Immigration XIXe-XXe Siècle (Paris: Seuil, 1988).
66. Haut Conseil à l'Intégration, Liens Culturels et Intégration (Paris: La Documentation Française, 1995), p. 13.
67. See Rose; Weil.
68. See Randall Hansen, "The Institution of Citizenship" (thesis, Faculty of Social Studies, Oxford University, 1997); Weil, ch. 10.
69. France does not keep ethnic statistics on its citizen population, so a precise comparison of minority populations is impossible. Nevertheless, as of 1990 there were over two million resident foreigners in France of African or Asian origin, and between 1980 and 1993 approximately 730,000 individuals (of all origins) became naturalized French citizens. See Weil, pp. 559-60, 568.
70. See Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).
71. See Robin Richardson, "National Identity: Summer 1995," The Runnymede Bulletin (September 1995).
72. Didier Lapeyronnie, L'Individu et les Minorités: La France et la Grande-Bretagne Face à Leurs Immigrés (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1993).
73. Although political bargaining, interest group power, electoral considerations, and material interests have played a role in some local policy outcomes, they are insufficient to explain the differences in policy outcomes between England and France and are themselves affected by the institutions and ideas discussed in this paper.
74. Ellen M. Immergut, "The Rules of the Game: The Logic of Health Policy-Making in France, Switzerland, and Sweden," in Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 57-89.
75. See Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Frances Stokes Berry and William D. Berry, "State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis," American Political Science Review, 84 (June 1990), 395-415.
76. See Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Frances Stokes Berry and William D. Berry, "State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis," American Political Science Review, 84 (June 1990), 395-415.
77. See Frank R. Baumgartner and Bryan D. Jones, Agendas and Instability in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
78. This paper therefore limits its scope to education policy as it relates to England and Wales, for which the shorthand "English education policy" is used.
79. This learning has taken place primarily through three paths. First, some local education authorities, with their own financial resources, have sponsored studies of multiculturalism by leading academics. See esp. Tomlinson, Multicultural Education. Second, bureaucrats and politicians can be exposed to "internal" policy documents and reports on multiculturalism issued by other local education authorities; finally, bureaucrats can move between local education authorities, applying their knowledge and experiences from one to another.
80. For similar discussions with reference to American federalism, see Baumgartner and Jones, pp. 216-34; and David Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).
81. For similar discussions with reference to American federalism, see Baumgartner and Jones, pp. 216-34; and David Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).
82. See Frank R. Baumgartner, Conflict and Rhetoric in French Policymaking (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), pp. 27-29.
83. See Margaret S. Archer, Social Origins of Educational Systems (London: Sage Publications, 1984).
84. John S. Ambler, "Constraints on Policy Innovation in Education: Thatcher's Britain and Mitterrand's France," Comparative Politics, 20 (October 1987), finds that both decentralization in Britain and centralization in France served to impede educational policy innovation in the early 1980s.
85. Obviously, preconceived ideas can change over time. When priors shift, the likelihood of accepting an international idea will also change. Explaining when and why priors evolve (and therefore making priors a temporal as well as spatial variable) is unfortunately beyond the scope of this paper.
86. Hall, p. 383.
87. Baumgartner and Jones, pp. 25-35.
88. See Serge Berstein and Odile Rudelle, eds., Le Modèle Républicain (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992); Jean Baubérot, ed., Religions et Laïcité dans l'Europe des Douze (Paris: Syros, 1994).
89. See Serge Berstein and Odile Rudelle, eds., Le Modèle Républicain (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992); Jean Baubérot, ed., Religions et Laïcité dans l'Europe des Douze (Paris: Syros, 1994).
90. See Emmanuel Todd, Le Destin des Immigrés: Assimilation et Ségrégation dans les Démocraties Occidentales (Paris: Seuil, 1994), for a particularly scathing critique of "differentialism" and a hearty defense of assimilationism.
91. See esp. Rex, "Concept."
92. Harlem Désir, "Pour l'intégration: Conditions et instruments," inTaguieff, ed., pp. 106-19.
93. See esp. Pierre-André Taguieff, La Force du Préjugé: Essai sur le Racisme et ses Doubles (Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1987), pp. 328-29, who argues that "the recognition of the Other can only be hierarchical."
94. Alec G. Hargreaves, Immigration, 'Race' and Ethnicity in Contemporary France (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 176.
95. This interviewee is himself a Catholic educationalist.
96. See the contributions of Mappa and Grandguillaume in CERI, ed., Multicultural Education.
97. Because many French educationalists' priors are antimulticulturalist, it is doubtful that decentralization would lead to the levels of multiculturalism found in England. Nevertheless, increasing the number of educational policy gatekeepers in France would almost certainly lead to the transfer of some gate-keeping posts to individuals more sympathetic to multiculturalism.
98. Rex, "Concept."
99. Here I mean liberal in the American sense, with a sympathy for the rights and well-being of "underprivileged" groups. This view is reflected in Britain not only in education policy, but also in policies toward race and ethnicity in many areas.
100. Liberal here is not simply equated with "left," since these two politicians broke to the right of the Labour Party in the early 1980s.
101. David Gillborn, Racism and Antiracism in Real Schools (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995), p. 93. A headteacher in Britain is the equivalent of a principal in the United States.
102. Comment made to this author in an interview.