Chemical translators: Pauling, Wheland and their strategies for teaching the theory of resonance

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 21-46

  Park, Buhm Soon ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038568907     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087498003471     Document Type: Review

References (166)

1. For the transformation of chemistry in this period, see John W. Servos, Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The Making of a Science in America, Princeton, 1990; Mary Jo Nye, from Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1950, Berkeley, 1993; and William H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry, New York, 1992. For changing trends in chemical textbooks, see M. J. Nye, 'From student to teacher: Linus Pauling and the reformulation of the principles of chemistry in the 1930s', in Communicating Chemistry: Textbooks and Their Audiences (ed. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Anders Lundgnen), forthcoming.
2. For the transformation of chemistry in this period, see John W. Servos, Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The Making of a Science in America, Princeton, 1990; Mary Jo Nye, from Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1950, Berkeley, 1993; and William H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry, New York, 1992. For changing trends in chemical textbooks, see M. J. Nye, 'From student to teacher: Linus Pauling and the reformulation of the principles of chemistry in the 1930s', in Communicating Chemistry: Textbooks and Their Audiences (ed. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Anders Lundgnen), forthcoming.
3. For the transformation of chemistry in this period, see John W. Servos, Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The Making of a Science in America, Princeton, 1990; Mary Jo Nye, from Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1950, Berkeley, 1993; and William H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry, New York, 1992. For changing trends in chemical textbooks, see M. J. Nye, 'From student to teacher: Linus Pauling and the reformulation of the principles of chemistry in the 1930s', in Communicating Chemistry: Textbooks and Their Audiences (ed. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Anders Lundgnen), forthcoming.
4. For the transformation of chemistry in this period, see John W. Servos, Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The Making of a Science in America, Princeton, 1990; Mary Jo Nye, from Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1950, Berkeley, 1993; and William H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry, New York, 1992. For changing trends in chemical textbooks, see M. J. Nye, 'From student to teacher: Linus Pauling and the reformulation of the principles of chemistry in the 1930s', in Communicating Chemistry: Textbooks and Their Audiences (ed. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Anders Lundgnen), forthcoming.
5. Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Ithaca, 1939, preface, and 'Modern structural chemistry', Science (1956), 123, 255-8, on 256.
6. Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Ithaca, 1939, preface, and 'Modern structural chemistry', Science (1956), 123, 255-8, on 256.
7. The resonance theory is often called the valence bond theory. It is based on the assumption that the molecule is a composite of atoms. By contrast, the molecular orbital theory sees the molecule as a separate entity. These disparate viewpoints stem from different ways of approximating the Schrödinger equation, and lead to different interpretations of chemical valence. For the comparison of the two theories, see D. A. Bantz, 'The structure of discovery: evolution of structural accounts of chemical bonding', in Scientific Discovery: Case Studies (ed. T. Nickles), Dordrecht, 1980, 291-329; A. Russo, 'Mulliken e Pauling: Le Due Vie della Chimica-Fisica in America', Testi Contesti (1982), 6, 37-59; Kostas Gavroglu and Ana Simoes, 'The Americans, the Germans, and the beginnings of quantum chemistry: the confluence of diverging traditions', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1994), 25, 47-110; K. Gavroglu, Fritz London, Cambridge, 1995, 38-95. For the reception of resonance theory in particular, see Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling, New York, 1995.
8. The resonance theory is often called the valence bond theory. It is based on the assumption that the molecule is a composite of atoms. By contrast, the molecular orbital theory sees the molecule as a separate entity. These disparate viewpoints stem from different ways of approximating the Schrödinger equation, and lead to different interpretations of chemical valence. For the comparison of the two theories, see D. A. Bantz, 'The structure of discovery: evolution of structural accounts of chemical bonding', in Scientific Discovery: Case Studies (ed. T. Nickles), Dordrecht, 1980, 291-329; A. Russo, 'Mulliken e Pauling: Le Due Vie della Chimica-Fisica in America', Testi Contesti (1982), 6, 37-59; Kostas Gavroglu and Ana Simoes, 'The Americans, the Germans, and the beginnings of quantum chemistry: the confluence of diverging traditions', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1994), 25, 47-110; K. Gavroglu, Fritz London, Cambridge, 1995, 38-95. For the reception of resonance theory in particular, see Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling, New York, 1995.
9. The resonance theory is often called the valence bond theory. It is based on the assumption that the molecule is a composite of atoms. By contrast, the molecular orbital theory sees the molecule as a separate entity. These disparate viewpoints stem from different ways of approximating the Schrödinger equation, and lead to different interpretations of chemical valence. For the comparison of the two theories, see D. A. Bantz, 'The structure of discovery: evolution of structural accounts of chemical bonding', in Scientific Discovery: Case Studies (ed. T. Nickles), Dordrecht, 1980, 291-329; A. Russo, 'Mulliken e Pauling: Le Due Vie della Chimica-Fisica in America', Testi Contesti (1982), 6, 37-59; Kostas Gavroglu and Ana Simoes, 'The Americans, the Germans, and the beginnings of quantum chemistry: the confluence of diverging traditions', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1994), 25, 47-110; K. Gavroglu, Fritz London, Cambridge, 1995, 38-95. For the reception of resonance theory in particular, see Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling, New York, 1995.
10. The resonance theory is often called the valence bond theory. It is based on the assumption that the molecule is a composite of atoms. By contrast, the molecular orbital theory sees the molecule as a separate entity. These disparate viewpoints stem from different ways of approximating the Schrödinger equation, and lead to different interpretations of chemical valence. For the comparison of the two theories, see D. A. Bantz, 'The structure of discovery: evolution of structural accounts of chemical bonding', in Scientific Discovery: Case Studies (ed. T. Nickles), Dordrecht, 1980, 291-329; A. Russo, 'Mulliken e Pauling: Le Due Vie della Chimica-Fisica in America', Testi Contesti (1982), 6, 37-59; Kostas Gavroglu and Ana Simoes, 'The Americans, the Germans, and the beginnings of quantum chemistry: the confluence of diverging traditions', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1994), 25, 47-110; K. Gavroglu, Fritz London, Cambridge, 1995, 38-95. For the reception of resonance theory in particular, see Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling, New York, 1995.
11. The resonance theory is often called the valence bond theory. It is based on the assumption that the molecule is a composite of atoms. By contrast, the molecular orbital theory sees the molecule as a separate entity. These disparate viewpoints stem from different ways of approximating the Schrödinger equation, and lead to different interpretations of chemical valence. For the comparison of the two theories, see D. A. Bantz, 'The structure of discovery: evolution of structural accounts of chemical bonding', in Scientific Discovery: Case Studies (ed. T. Nickles), Dordrecht, 1980, 291-329; A. Russo, 'Mulliken e Pauling: Le Due Vie della Chimica-Fisica in America', Testi Contesti (1982), 6, 37-59; Kostas Gavroglu and Ana Simoes, 'The Americans, the Germans, and the beginnings of quantum chemistry: the confluence of diverging traditions', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1994), 25, 47-110; K. Gavroglu, Fritz London, Cambridge, 1995, 38-95. For the reception of resonance theory in particular, see Thomas Hager, Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling, New York, 1995.
12. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
13. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
14. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
15. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
16. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
17. For biographical information on Pauling, see his 'Fifty years of physical chemistry in the California Institute of Technology', Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1965), 16, 1-13, and 'Fifty years of progress in structural chemistry and molecular biology', Daedalus (Autumn, 1970), 988-1014. See also Robert Paradowski, 'The Structural Chemistry of Linus Pauling', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Judith R. Goodstein, 'Atoms, molecules, and Linus Pauling', Social Research (1984), 54, 691-708; and Hager, op. cit. (3). For Pauling's relationship with A. A. Noyes at Caltech and his position in the history of physical chemistry, see Servos, op. cit. (1), ch. 6.
18. For Sommerfeld's influence upon Pauling and Pauling's social life in Munich, see Hager, op. cit. (3), ch. 5.
19. Robert C. Brasted and Peter Farago (eds.), 'Interview with Linus Pauling by David Ridgway', Journal of Chemical Education (1976), 53, 471-6, on 472. See also Hager, op. cit. (3), 130.
20. Robert C. Brasted and Peter Farago (eds.), 'Interview with Linus Pauling by David Ridgway', Journal of Chemical Education (1976), 53, 471-6, on 472. See also Hager, op. cit. (3), 130.
21. L. Pauling, 'The Nature of the Chemical Bond', talk at the southern California Section of the American Chemical Society, 6 April 1928, Linus Pauling Papers, Oregon State University (hereafter LPP), 274.5. See also Pauling, 'The Development of the Quantum Mechanics', talk at the San Bernardino Junior College, 21 October 1929, LPP: 171.20.
22. L. Pauling, 'The Nature of the Chemical Bond', talk at the southern California Section of the American Chemical Society, 6 April 1928, Linus Pauling Papers, Oregon State University (hereafter LPP), 274.5. See also Pauling, 'The Development of the Quantum Mechanics', talk at the San Bernardino Junior College, 21 October 1929, LPP: 171.20.
23. L. Pauling, 'The application of the quantum mechanics to the structure of the hydrogen molecule and hydrogen molecular ion and to related problems', Chemical Review (1928), 5, 173-213, and 'The shared-electron chemical bond', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (1928), 14, 359-62.
24. L. Pauling, 'The application of the quantum mechanics to the structure of the hydrogen molecule and hydrogen molecular ion and to related problems', Chemical Review (1928), 5, 173-213, and 'The shared-electron chemical bond', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (1928), 14, 359-62.
25. Pauling's Berkeley lectures in 1929 started with the following discussion: '[On the one hand]...the replacement of the old quantum theory by the quantum mechanics is not the overthrow of a dynasty through revolution, but rather the abdication of an old and feeble king in favor of his young and powerful son. It is true, on the other hand, that at times interpretations given the fundamental equations underlying a theory are later rejected completely in favor of alternative ones, and that especially the metaphysical ideas which develop with a physical theory fall often into complete disfavor. To this extent the development of the quantum mechanics was a revolution in physics.' His confidence in quantum mechanics was also displayed in a religious tone: 'This, then, is the quantum mechanics - the Cabala of the scientist, the mystic machine which, like the Oracle at Delphi, gives an answer to every question put to it, but which, unlike the Oracle, gives always the right answer', LPP: 243.1
26. In his talk at the Southern California Section of the American Chemical Society on 7 February 1936, Pauling said that 'there is more to chemistry than an understanding of general principles'. L. Pauling, 'Recent Work on the Structure of Molecules', LPP: 274.14.
27. Pauling's Caltech lectures in 1936-37 (Supplementary notes for use with textbook, L. Pauling and E. Bright Wilson, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, New York, 1935), LPP: 172.12.
28. Pauling's Berkeley lectures in 1931, LPP: 243.
29. Pauling's Caltech lectures in 1935-36 on the Nature of the Chemical Bond, LPP: 173.6.
30. Werner Heisenberg, 'Mehrkörperproblem und Resonanz in der Quantenmechanik', Zeitschrift für Physik (1926), 38, 411-26, on 416. On Heisenberg's interest in helium, which had begun in 1922, see Jagdish Mehra and Helmut Rechenberg, The Historical Development of Quantum Theory: The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications, 1925-1926, New York, 1982, 282-301. See also Cathryn Carson, 'The peculiar notion of exchange forces-1: origins in quantum mechanics, 1926-1928', Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics (1996), 27, 23-45.
31. Werner Heisenberg, 'Mehrkörperproblem und Resonanz in der Quantenmechanik', Zeitschrift für Physik (1926), 38, 411-26, on 416. On Heisenberg's interest in helium, which had begun in 1922, see Jagdish Mehra and Helmut Rechenberg, The Historical Development of Quantum Theory: The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications, 1925-1926, New York, 1982, 282-301. See also Cathryn Carson, 'The peculiar notion of exchange forces-1: origins in quantum mechanics, 1926-1928', Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics (1996), 27, 23-45.
32. Werner Heisenberg, 'Mehrkörperproblem und Resonanz in der Quantenmechanik', Zeitschrift für Physik (1926), 38, 411-26, on 416. On Heisenberg's interest in helium, which had begun in 1922, see Jagdish Mehra and Helmut Rechenberg, The Historical Development of Quantum Theory: The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications, 1925-1926, New York, 1982, 282-301. See also Cathryn Carson, 'The peculiar notion of exchange forces-1: origins in quantum mechanics, 1926-1928', Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics (1996), 27, 23-45.
33. Pauling's Caltech lectures in 1927-28, LPP: P2.11; and his Berkeley lectures in 1929, LPP: 243.
34. Pauling, 'Quantum mechanics', op. cit. (8), 184-5.
35. Interview with Walter Heitler in the Archive for the History of Quantum Physics. Quoted in Gavroglu and Simoes, op. cit. (3), 64.
36. Walter Heitler and Fritz London, 'Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und homöopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik', Zeitschrift für Physik (1927), 46, 455-72. For Pauling's view of this paper, see 'The Hydrogen Molecule', LP Notes & Calculations Vol. III, 1926-1927, LPP: 241.
37. Walter Heitler and Fritz London, 'Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und homöopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik', Zeitschrift für Physik (1927), 46, 455-72. For Pauling's view of this paper, see 'The Hydrogen Molecule', LP Notes & Calculations Vol. III, 1926-1927, LPP: 241.
38. Pauling's Berkeley lectures in 1929, pp. 84-5, LPP: 243. The emphasis is Pauling's.
39. L. Pauling 'Interatomic distances in covalent molecules and resonance between two or more Lewis electronic structures', Proceeding of the National Academy of Science (1932), 18, 293-7. See also Pauling's Berkeley lectures in 1932 and 1933, LPP: 243.
40. L. Pauling 'Interatomic distances in covalent molecules and resonance between two or more Lewis electronic structures', Proceeding of the National Academy of Science (1932), 18, 293-7. See also Pauling's Berkeley lectures in 1932 and 1933, LPP: 243.
41. Pauling's Caltech lectures in 1935-36, pp. 8-9, LPP: 173.6.
42. L. Pauling, 'The nature of the chemical bond III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another', Journal of the American Chemical Society (1932), 54, 988-1003, on 997.
43. I have adopted the term 'chemical visuality' from the Swedish quantum chemist Per-Olov Löwdin, who thought that the resonance theory had 'its great advantage in the close parallelism between the quantum-mechanical wave function and the corresponding chemical [structural] formula for the compound'. See P.-O. Löwdin, 'Present situation of quantum chemistry'. Journal of Physical Chemistry (1957), 61, 55-68.
44. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2).
45. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), p. ix.
46. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), 11.
47. G. B. Kistiakowsky, 'The nature of the chemical bond', Journal of the American Chemical Soctety (1940), 62, 457.
48. Thomas S. Kuhn's interview with Robert S. Mulliken, in Selected Papers of Robert S. Mulliken (ed. D. A. Ramsay and J. Hinze), Chicago, 1975, 9. See also Mulliken's book review in Journal of Physical Chemistry (1940), 44, 827-8.
49. Thomas S. Kuhn's interview with Robert S. Mulliken, in Selected Papers of Robert S. Mulliken (ed. D. A. Ramsay and J. Hinze), Chicago, 1975, 9. See also Mulliken's book review in Journal of Physical Chemistry (1940), 44, 827-8.
50. Pauling's self-assurance and self-confidence were well known. For example, James Watson vividly described his impression of Pauling's lectures as follows: 'There was no one like Linus in all the world. The combination of his prodigious mind and his infectious grin was unbeatable...Seeing Linus jumping up and down on the demonstration table and moving his arms like a magician about to pull a rabbit out of his shoe made them feel inadequate. If only he had shown a little humility, it would have been so much easier to take! Even if he were to say nonsense, his mesmerized students would never know because of his unquenchable self-confidence.' J. Watson, The Double Helix, New York, 1968, 35-6.
51. For a differential reception of Lewis's theory across the national line, see Robert E. Kohler, Jr, 'The Lewis-Langmuir theory of valence and the chemical community, 1920-1928', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1975), 6, 431-68. Kohler concludes his paper with a perceptive note: 'The subsequent history of the nascent physical organic school and its relation to theoretical quantum chemistry is a separate story; but the emergence of quantum chemistry in the 1930's was profoundly influenced by the manner in which the Lewis-Langmuir theory was taken up by the chemical community in the 1920's' (p. 468). Whereas Kohler sees a direct link between the early reception of the Lewis theory in Britain and the early British leadership in physical organic chemistry, Martin D. Saltzman ascribes the slow and hesitant development of this discipline in the United States to the lack of an institutional base. M. D. Saltzman, 'The development of physical organic chemistry in the United States and the United Kingdom: 1919-1939: parallels and contrasts', Journal of Chemical Education (1986), 63, 588-93.
52. For a differential reception of Lewis's theory across the national line, see Robert E. Kohler, Jr, 'The Lewis-Langmuir theory of valence and the chemical community, 1920-1928', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1975), 6, 431-68. Kohler concludes his paper with a perceptive note: 'The subsequent history of the nascent physical organic school and its relation to theoretical quantum chemistry is a separate story; but the emergence of quantum chemistry in the 1930's was profoundly influenced by the manner in which the Lewis-Langmuir theory was taken up by the chemical community in the 1920's' (p. 468). Whereas Kohler sees a direct link between the early reception of the Lewis theory in Britain and the early British leadership in physical organic chemistry, Martin D. Saltzman ascribes the slow and hesitant development of this discipline in the United States to the lack of an institutional base. M. D. Saltzman, 'The development of physical organic chemistry in the United States and the United Kingdom: 1919-1939: parallels and contrasts', Journal of Chemical Education (1986), 63, 588-93.
53. For more details on C. K. Ingold's career and achievements, see C. W. Shoppee, 'Christopher Kelk Ingold', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1972), 18, 349-411; Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), ch. 8; K. Schofield, 'The development of Ingold's system of organic chemistry', Ambix (1994), 41, 87-107; Brock, op. cit. (1), ch. 14; and Gerrylynn R. Roberts, 'C. K. Ingold at University College London: educator and department head', BJHS (1996), 29, 65-82.
54. For more details on C. K. Ingold's career and achievements, see C. W. Shoppee, 'Christopher Kelk Ingold', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1972), 18, 349-411; Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), ch. 8; K. Schofield, 'The development of Ingold's system of organic chemistry', Ambix (1994), 41, 87-107; Brock, op. cit. (1), ch. 14; and Gerrylynn R. Roberts, 'C. K. Ingold at University College London: educator and department head', BJHS (1996), 29, 65-82.
55. For more details on C. K. Ingold's career and achievements, see C. W. Shoppee, 'Christopher Kelk Ingold', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1972), 18, 349-411; Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), ch. 8; K. Schofield, 'The development of Ingold's system of organic chemistry', Ambix (1994), 41, 87-107; Brock, op. cit. (1), ch. 14; and Gerrylynn R. Roberts, 'C. K. Ingold at University College London: educator and department head', BJHS (1996), 29, 65-82.
56. For more details on C. K. Ingold's career and achievements, see C. W. Shoppee, 'Christopher Kelk Ingold', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1972), 18, 349-411; Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), ch. 8; K. Schofield, 'The development of Ingold's system of organic chemistry', Ambix (1994), 41, 87-107; Brock, op. cit. (1), ch. 14; and Gerrylynn R. Roberts, 'C. K. Ingold at University College London: educator and department head', BJHS (1996), 29, 65-82.
57. For more details on C. K. Ingold's career and achievements, see C. W. Shoppee, 'Christopher Kelk Ingold', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society (1972), 18, 349-411; Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), ch. 8; K. Schofield, 'The development of Ingold's system of organic chemistry', Ambix (1994), 41, 87-107; Brock, op. cit. (1), ch. 14; and Gerrylynn R. Roberts, 'C. K. Ingold at University College London: educator and department head', BJHS (1996), 29, 65-82.
58. C. K. Ingold, 'Principles of an electronic theory of organic reactions', Chemical Review's (1934), 15, 225-74. This review article had been used as a standard item in advanced organic chemistry courses in the United States in the 1930s until textbooks dealing with this topic appeared the next decade. See Saltzman, op. cit. (30), 590.
59. C. K. Ingold, 'Principles of an electronic theory of organic reactions', Chemical Review's (1934), 15, 225-74. This review article had been used as a standard item in advanced organic chemistry courses in the United States in the 1930s until textbooks dealing with this topic appeared the next decade. See Saltzman, op. cit. (30), 590.
60. C. K. Ingold, 'Significance of tautomerism and of the reactions of aromatic compounds in the electronic theory of organic reactions'. Journal of the Chemical Society (1933), 136, 1120-7, on 1127.
61. C. K. Ingold, 'Resonance and mesomerism', Nature (1938), 141, 314-18.
62. Ingold, op. cit. (34), 316.
63. Ingold, op. cit. (34), 318.
64. L. E. Sutton, 'Nevil V. Sidgwick', Proceedings of the Chemical Society (1958), 310-19; H. Tizard, 'Nevil Sidgwick', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society (1954), 9, 237-58.
65. L. E. Sutton, 'Nevil V. Sidgwick', Proceedings of the Chemical Society (1958), 310-19; H. Tizard, 'Nevil Sidgwick', Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society (1954), 9, 237-58.
66. Nevil V. Sidgwick, The Electronic Theory of Valency, Oxford, 1927. According to Tizard, this book became an instant best-seller, selling some 10,000 copies. Sidgwick's Cornell lectures were published in 1933 as a book, Some Physical Properties of the Covalent Link in Chemistry, Ithaca, 1933.
67. Nevil V. Sidgwick, The Electronic Theory of Valency, Oxford, 1927. According to Tizard, this book became an instant best-seller, selling some 10,000 copies. Sidgwick's Cornell lectures were published in 1933 as a book, Some Physical Properties of the Covalent Link in Chemistry, Ithaca, 1933.
68. N. V. Sidgwick, 'Structural chemistry', Journal of the Chemical Society (1936), 533-8.
69. Sidgwick, op. cit. (39), 535. It is interesting that Sidgwick confused Heisenberg with Hund.
70. Sidgwick, op. cit. (39), 538.
71. N. V. Sidgwick, 'Hybrid molecules', Journal of the Chemical Society (1937), 694-99.
72. Sidgwick, op. cit. (42), 694.
73. A quote I have used in the forefront of this paper. For this remark by Maxwell, Sidgwick drew on J. J. Thomson's Recollections and Reflections, New York, 1937, 392, rather than directly from Maxwell.
74. John W. Baker, Tautomerism, London, 1934.
75. C. K. Ingold, 'Mesomerism and tautomerism', Nature (1934), 133, 946-7.
76. Ingold, op. cit. (46), 947 n5.
77. London to Sidgwick, 10 May 1934, in Nye, 'Chemical philosophy', op. cit. (1), 207.
78. Sidgwick, op. cit. (42), 695.
79. For example, J. E. Lennard-Jones, who became the first holder of the prestigious Plummer Chair of Theoretical Chemistry at Cambridge in 1932, developed a strong research programme in the molecular orbital treatment of chemical problems. And the work of other molecular orbital theorists like Hund, Mulliken and Hückel was also introduced and discussed through the Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry. See C. N. Hinshelwood, 'General', Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry (1932), 13-21.
80. For example, J. E. Lennard-Jones, who became the first holder of the prestigious Plummer Chair of Theoretical Chemistry at Cambridge in 1932, developed a strong research programme in the molecular orbital treatment of chemical problems. And the work of other molecular orbital theorists like Hund, Mulliken and Hückel was also introduced and discussed through the Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry. See C. N. Hinshelwood, 'General', Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry (1932), 13-21.
81. In addition to his presidential addresses, see N. V. Sidgwick, 'The covalency rule'. Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry (1933), 110-16; 'The theory of resonance and the co-ordination of hydrogen', ibid., (1934), 37-43, and 'Wave mechanics and structural chemistry', Nature (1934), 133, 529-30.
82. In addition to his presidential addresses, see N. V. Sidgwick, 'The covalency rule'. Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry (1933), 110-16; 'The theory of resonance and the co-ordination of hydrogen', ibid., (1934), 37-43, and 'Wave mechanics and structural chemistry', Nature (1934), 133, 529-30.
83. In addition to his presidential addresses, see N. V. Sidgwick, 'The covalency rule'. Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry (1933), 110-16; 'The theory of resonance and the co-ordination of hydrogen', ibid., (1934), 37-43, and 'Wave mechanics and structural chemistry', Nature (1934), 133, 529-30.
84. William A. Waters, Physical Aspects of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1936, 113-14.
85. Herbert B. Watson, Modern Theories of Organic Chemistry, Oxford, 1937, 14.
86. Even before the publication of this series, Pauling had been coveted by Lewis of Berkeley and Conant of Harvard. In 1931, Slater offered Pauling a full professorship in physics, chemistry, or any combination of the two. See Hager, op. cit. (3), 149-59.
87. Howard J. Lucas, Organic Chemistry, New York, 1935. For the role of Lucas in the development of physical organic chemistry in the United States, see Leon Gortler, 'The physical organic community in the United States, 1925-50', Journal of Chemical Education (1985), 62, 753-7; and Saltzman, op. cit. (30), 590-1.
88. Howard J. Lucas, Organic Chemistry, New York, 1935. For the role of Lucas in the development of physical organic chemistry in the United States, see Leon Gortler, 'The physical organic community in the United States, 1925-50', Journal of Chemical Education (1985), 62, 753-7; and Saltzman, op. cit. (30), 590-1.
89. Howard J. Lucas, Organic Chemistry, New York, 1935. For the role of Lucas in the development of physical organic chemistry in the United States, see Leon Gortler, 'The physical organic community in the United States, 1925-50', Journal of Chemical Education (1985), 62, 753-7; and Saltzman, op. cit. (30), 590-1.
90. L. Pauling, 'the significance of resonance and the nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules', in Organic Chemistry: An Advanced Treatise (ed. Henry Gilman), 2 vols., New York, 1938, 1850-90; John R. Johnson, 'Modern electronic concepts of valence', ibid., 1595-711. Johnson's article is interesting, because it suggests the existence of 'the dismay and confusion of many organic chemists' about the intrusion of quantum-mechanical ideas. While he welcomed the theory of resonance and Ingold's systematization of reaction mechanisms, he was concerned about organic chemists, who confronted with 'the serious problem of keeping abreast of the flood of speculative elaboration of electronic theories and seeking to understand and assimilate them'.
91. L. Pauling, 'the significance of resonance and the nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules', in Organic Chemistry: An Advanced Treatise (ed. Henry Gilman), 2 vols., New York, 1938, 1850-90; John R. Johnson, 'Modern electronic concepts of valence', ibid., 1595-711. Johnson's article is interesting, because it suggests the existence of 'the dismay and confusion of many organic chemists' about the intrusion of quantum-mechanical ideas. While he welcomed the theory of resonance and Ingold's systematization of reaction mechanisms, he was concerned about organic chemists, who confronted with 'the serious problem of keeping abreast of the flood of speculative elaboration of electronic theories and seeking to understand and assimilate them'.
92. Lucas, op. cit. (55), 25-6.
93. Conant to Pauling, 29 August 1938, LPP: 13.7.
94. Pauling to Conant, 2 September 1938, LPP: 13.
95. Pauling's Caltech lectures on the nature of the chemical bond in 1935-36, 13, LPP: 173.6.
96. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), 423-31.
97. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), 42.
98. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), 428.
99. Proud and confident of his former student, Conant wrote to Pauling: 'I am delighted to hear that Wheland is doing so well. If he can work hard and stick to this combination of quantum mechanics and organic chemistry for a few years, he ought to be a very outstanding man...I cannot tell you how pleased I am that he seems to have found the right line for his talent.' Pauling, as well, praised Wheland's talent for theoretical work. Conant to Pauling, 27 February 1933; Pauling to Conant, 25 September 1934, LPP: 13.7.
100. Proud and confident of his former student, Conant wrote to Pauling: 'I am delighted to hear that Wheland is doing so well. If he can work hard and stick to this combination of quantum mechanics and organic chemistry for a few years, he ought to be a very outstanding man...I cannot tell you how pleased I am that he seems to have found the right line for his talent.' Pauling, as well, praised Wheland's talent for theoretical work. Conant to Pauling, 27 February 1933; Pauling to Conant, 25 September 1934, LPP: 13.7.
101. Wheland to Pauling, 29 September 1936, 29 November 1936; Pauling to Wheland, 30 October, 1936, LPP: 145.8.
102. Wheland to Pauling, 29 September 1936, 29 November 1936; Pauling to Wheland, 30 October, 1936, LPP: 145.8.
103. Pauling to Wheland, 30 October 1936, LPP: 145.8.
104. The recent paper by Gerrylynn K. Roberts confirms Wheland's observation of Ingold's tactic of overspending. Roberts, op. cit. (31), 65-82.
105. Wheland to Pauling, 29 November 1936, LPP: 145.8.
106. Pauling to Wheland, 11 March 1937, LPP: 145.8.
107. Wheland to Pauling, 11 May 1937, 7 June 1937, LPP: 247.6.
108. Pauling to Wheland, 30 March 1937, 28 July 1937, LPP: 145.8.
109. Pauling to H. I. Schlesinger, 23 December 1936, LPP: 145.8.
110. George W. Wheland, The Theory of Resonance and Its Application to Organic Chemistry, New York, 1944.
111. For the profound influence that Hammett's book had upon the discipline of physical organic chemistry, see Gortler, op. cit. (55), 756.
112. Louis P. Hammett, Physical Organic Chemistry, New York, 1940; Gerald E. K. Branch and Melvin Calvin, The Theory of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1941; and A. Edward Remick, Electronic Interpretations of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1943.
113. Louis P. Hammett, Physical Organic Chemistry, New York, 1940; Gerald E. K. Branch and Melvin Calvin, The Theory of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1941; and A. Edward Remick, Electronic Interpretations of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1943.
114. Louis P. Hammett, Physical Organic Chemistry, New York, 1940; Gerald E. K. Branch and Melvin Calvin, The Theory of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1941; and A. Edward Remick, Electronic Interpretations of Organic Chemistry, New York, 1943.
115. Gilman, op. cit. (56), 2nd edn, 4 vols., New York, 1943.
116. Several chapters of the unpublished book, 'Quantum Mechanics of Organic Molecules', mostly written by Wheland, are in LPP : 443 and LPP : 444.
117. Pauling to W. Bradford Wiley, 11 May 1943, LPP: 145.8.
118. Wheland, op. cit. (73), p. iii.
119. Wheland, op. cit. (73), 28.
120. Pauling did not like Wheland's special emphasis on the 'man-made' nature of resonance. See Wheland to Pauling, 20 January 1956, 4 February 1956; Pauling to Wheland, 26 January 1956, 8 February 1956, LPP: 145.8. See also Gavroglu and Simoes, op. cit. (3), 91-4.
121. Pauling did not like Wheland's special emphasis on the 'man-made' nature of resonance. See Wheland to Pauling, 20 January 1956, 4 February 1956; Pauling to Wheland, 26 January 1956, 8 February 1956, LPP: 145.8. See also Gavroglu and Simoes, op. cit. (3), 91-4.
122. Pauling did not like Wheland's special emphasis on the 'man-made' nature of resonance. See Wheland to Pauling, 20 January 1956, 4 February 1956; Pauling to Wheland, 26 January 1956, 8 February 1956, LPP: 145.8. See also Gavroglu and Simoes, op. cit. (3), 91-4.
123. Wheland, op. cit. (73), 3.
124. Wheland, op. cit. (73), 6-18.
125. M. Calvin, 'The theory of resonance and its application to organic chemistry', Journal of the American Chemical Society (1945), 67, 1043.
126. F. C. Nachod, 'The theory of resonance and its application to organic chemistry', Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering (1945), 52, 241.
127. C. D. Hurd, 'The theory of resonance and its application to organic chemistry', Chemical and Engineering News (1945), 23, 578.
128. 'Soviet dispute a chemical theory', New York Times, 15 July 1951, E9. The resonance controversy in the Soviet Union has been analysed in detail by Loren R. Graham, 'A Soviet Marxist view of structural chemistry: the theory of resonance controversy', Isis (1964), 55, 20-31, and Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union, New York, 1987, ch. 9.
129. 'Soviet dispute a chemical theory', New York Times, 15 July 1951, E9. The resonance controversy in the Soviet Union has been analysed in detail by Loren R. Graham, 'A Soviet Marxist view of structural chemistry: the theory of resonance controversy', Isis (1964), 55, 20-31, and Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union, New York, 1987, ch. 9.
130. 'Soviet dispute a chemical theory', New York Times, 15 July 1951, E9. The resonance controversy in the Soviet Union has been analysed in detail by Loren R. Graham, 'A Soviet Marxist view of structural chemistry: the theory of resonance controversy', Isis (1964), 55, 20-31, and Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union, New York, 1987, ch. 9.
131. 'Soviet blast Pauling, repudiate resonance theory', Chemical and Engineering News (1951), 29, 3712-14.
132. The News Bureau of the California Institute of Technology, 'Resonance Controversy', 1 September 1951, LPP: 261.11. For other chemists' responses, see A. Taurin to Pauling, 24 November 1951; and Irving S. Bengelsdorf to Pauling, 13 December 1951, LPP: 261.15.
133. The News Bureau of the California Institute of Technology, 'Resonance Controversy', 1 September 1951, LPP: 261.11. For other chemists' responses, see A. Taurin to Pauling, 24 November 1951; and Irving S. Bengelsdorf to Pauling, 13 December 1951, LPP: 261.15.
134. The News Bureau of the California Institute of Technology, 'Resonance Controversy', 1 September 1951, LPP: 261.11. For other chemists' responses, see A. Taurin to Pauling, 24 November 1951; and Irving S. Bengelsdorf to Pauling, 13 December 1951, LPP: 261.15.
135. G. M. Kosolapoff, 'On "nonresonance" between East and West', Chemical and Engineering News (1952), 30, 2474.
136. Murray Vernon King to Pauling, 23 January 1953, 27 July 1953, LPP: 261.17.
137. King to Pauling, 9 February 1954, LPP: 261.17.
138. G. Wheland, 'Resonance again', Chemical and Engineering News (1952), 30, 3160.
139. G. Wheland, Resonance in Organic Chemistry, New York, 1955, p. vii.
140. C. A. Coulson, 'The meaning of resonance in quantum chemistry', Endeavor (January 1947), 42-7.
141. S. D. Silver, 'Resonance in organic chemistry', Journal of the American Chemical Society (1956), 78, 2344.
142. Wheland, op. cit. (94), 7-8.
143. 'Earmarking the role of resonance', Chemical and Engineering News (1956), 34, 2600.
144. Wheland, op. cit. (94), 4.
145. Wheland, op. cit. (94), 5.
146. Pauling, 'Chemical bond', op. cit. (2), 255-8.
147. Pauling to Wheland, 16 January 1956, 1 PP: 145.8.
148. Wheland, op. cit. (73), 28.
149. Wheland to Pauling, 20 January 1956, LPP: 145.8.
150. Wheland to Pauling, 20 January 1956, LPP: 145.8.
151. Pauling to Wheland, 26 January 1956, LPP: 145.8.
152. Wheland to Pauling, 4 February 1956, LPP: 145.8.
153. Pauling to Wheland, 8 February 1956, LPP: 145.8.
154. L. Pauling, 'The nature of the theory of resonance', in Perspectives in Organic Chemistry (ed. Alexander Todd), New York, 1956, 1-8.
155. Wheland, op. cit. (94), 612-13.
156. Wheland to Pauling, 4 February 1956, LPP: 145.8.
157. For the difficulties of perfect translation between specialists of different scientific communities, see Peter Galison, 'Computer simulations and the trading zone', in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (ed. P. Galison and David J. Stump), Stanford, 1996, 118-57; and Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, Chicago, 1997. According to Galison, the specialists develop an intermediate language, a 'pidgin', to communicate and handle negotiations in a 'trading zone', where radically different activities can be 'locally' coordinated. My case is similar to Galison's in that the non-mathematical exposition of resonance by Pauling and Wheland can be considered to be a pidgin language that expedited the communication between physicists, physical chemists and organic chemists. However, this communication was made possible through devoted translators like Pauling and Wheland, rather than through local coordination of activities in a trading zone like Los Alamos. Helge Kragh and Stephen J. Weininger's paper on the entry of entropy from physics to chemistry also shows the difficulty of translation across the disciplinary line. H. Kragh and S. J. Weininger, 'Sooner silence than confusion: the tortuous entry of entropy into chemistry', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1996), 27, 91-130. In particular, they illustrate how many writers of chemical textbooks taught the second principle of thermodynamics without an explicit use of the entropy concept for a while.
158. For the difficulties of perfect translation between specialists of different scientific communities, see Peter Galison, 'Computer simulations and the trading zone', in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (ed. P. Galison and David J. Stump), Stanford, 1996, 118-57; and Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, Chicago, 1997. According to Galison, the specialists develop an intermediate language, a 'pidgin', to communicate and handle negotiations in a 'trading zone', where radically different activities can be 'locally' coordinated. My case is similar to Galison's in that the non-mathematical exposition of resonance by Pauling and Wheland can be considered to be a pidgin language that expedited the communication between physicists, physical chemists and organic chemists. However, this communication was made possible through devoted translators like Pauling and Wheland, rather than through local coordination of activities in a trading zone like Los Alamos. Helge Kragh and Stephen J. Weininger's paper on the entry of entropy from physics to chemistry also shows the difficulty of translation across the disciplinary line. H. Kragh and S. J. Weininger, 'Sooner silence than confusion: the tortuous entry of entropy into chemistry', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1996), 27, 91-130. In particular, they illustrate how many writers of chemical textbooks taught the second principle of thermodynamics without an explicit use of the entropy concept for a while.
159. For the difficulties of perfect translation between specialists of different scientific communities, see Peter Galison, 'Computer simulations and the trading zone', in The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (ed. P. Galison and David J. Stump), Stanford, 1996, 118-57; and Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, Chicago, 1997. According to Galison, the specialists develop an intermediate language, a 'pidgin', to communicate and handle negotiations in a 'trading zone', where radically different activities can be 'locally' coordinated. My case is similar to Galison's in that the non-mathematical exposition of resonance by Pauling and Wheland can be considered to be a pidgin language that expedited the communication between physicists, physical chemists and organic chemists. However, this communication was made possible through devoted translators like Pauling and Wheland, rather than through local coordination of activities in a trading zone like Los Alamos. Helge Kragh and Stephen J. Weininger's paper on the entry of entropy from physics to chemistry also shows the difficulty of translation across the disciplinary line. H. Kragh and S. J. Weininger, 'Sooner silence than confusion: the tortuous entry of entropy into chemistry', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (1996), 27, 91-130. In particular, they illustrate how many writers of chemical textbooks taught the second principle of thermodynamics without an explicit use of the entropy concept for a while.
160. 'George Willard Wheland Medal: An Appeal for Funds', Mulliken papers: 41.12, University of Chicago Library.
161. G. Wheland, Advanced Organic Chemistry, New York, 1946, 1949 and 1960.
162. L. Pauling, General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory, San Francisco, 1947, and College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry, San Francisco, 1950. For the importance of Pauling's The Nature of the Chemical Bond, see Hager, op. cit. (3), 216-18.
163. L. Pauling, General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory, San Francisco, 1947, and College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry, San Francisco, 1950. For the importance of Pauling's The Nature of the Chemical Bond, see Hager, op. cit. (3), 216-18.
164. L. Pauling, General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory, San Francisco, 1947, and College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry, San Francisco, 1950. For the importance of Pauling's The Nature of the Chemical Bond, see Hager, op. cit. (3), 216-18.
165. L. Pauling, General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory, San Francisco, 1947, and College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry, San Francisco, 1950. For the importance of Pauling's The Nature of the Chemical Bond, see Hager, op. cit. (3), 216-18.
166. Derek A. Davenport, 'Linus Pauling - chemical educator', Journal of Chemical Education (1980), 57, 35-7, on 37.