Sooner silence than confusion: The tortuous entry of entropy into chemistry

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 93-130

  Kragh, Helge ^a   Weininger, Stephen J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^b WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 19844370980     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757770     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. L.W. Fine and H. Beall, Chemistry for scientists and engineers (Philadelphia, 1990), 378-390; R.J. Gillespie, D.R. Eaton, D.A. Humphreys and E.A. Robinson, Atoms, molecules and reactions: An introduction to chemistry (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994), 321-330.
2. L.W. Fine and H. Beall, Chemistry for scientists and engineers (Philadelphia, 1990), 378-390; R.J. Gillespie, D.R. Eaton, D.A. Humphreys and E.A. Robinson, Atoms, molecules and reactions: An introduction to chemistry (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994), 321-330.
3. H. Dorin, P.E. Demmin, and D.L. Gable, Chemistry: The structure of matter (Needham, MA, 1992), 492-496; H.E. LeMay, Jr., H. Beall, K.M. Robble, and D.C. Brower, Chemistry: Connections to our changing world (Needham, MA, 1996), 756-760.
4. H. Dorin, P.E. Demmin, and D.L. Gable, Chemistry: The structure of matter (Needham, MA, 1992), 492-496; H.E. LeMay, Jr., H. Beall, K.M. Robble, and D.C. Brower, Chemistry: Connections to our changing world (Needham, MA, 1996), 756-760.
5. L. Pauling, General chemistry: An introduction to descriptive chemistry and modern chemical theory, 2nd edn. (San Francisco, 1953), 650-653. Pauling's book was one of the first to present entropy at the introductory university level.
6. S. Glasstone, K.J. Laidler, and H. Eyring, The theory of rate processes: The kinetics of chemical reactions, viscosity, diffusion and electrochemical phenomena (New York, 1941), 295-297.
7. A few brief overviews of physical chemistry textbooks have been published, but their examination of the contents is very superficial: J.H. Wolfendon, "The earliest textbooks of physical chemistry in English," JCE, 50 (1973), 532; P.E. Yankwich, "Organizational currents in physical chemistry textbooks," JCE, 54 (1977), 271-272.
8. A few brief overviews of physical chemistry textbooks have been published, but their examination of the contents is very superficial: J.H. Wolfendon, "The earliest textbooks of physical chemistry in English," JCE, 50 (1973), 532; P.E. Yankwich, "Organizational currents in physical chemistry textbooks," JCE, 54 (1977), 271-272.
9. R. Clausius, Abhandlungen über die mechanische Wärmetheorie (2 vols., Braunschweig, 1865-67), which includes all of Clausius' papers on thermodynamics; English translation by T.A. Hirst as The mechanical theory of heat (London, 1887). Thomson's works on thermodynamics can be found in W. Thomson, Mathematical and physical papers, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1882).
10. R. Clausius, Abhandlungen über die mechanische Wärmetheorie (2 vols., Braunschweig, 1865-67), which includes all of Clausius' papers on thermodynamics; English translation by T.A. Hirst as The mechanical theory of heat (London, 1887). Thomson's works on thermodynamics can be found in W. Thomson, Mathematical and physical papers, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1882).
11. R. Clausius, Abhandlungen über die mechanische Wärmetheorie (2 vols., Braunschweig, 1865-67), which includes all of Clausius' papers on thermodynamics; English translation by T.A. Hirst as The mechanical theory of heat (London, 1887). Thomson's works on thermodynamics can be found in W. Thomson, Mathematical and physical papers, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1882).
12. For the contemporaneous discussion about the relationship between entropy and dissipation, see E.E. Daub, "Entropy and dissipation," HSPS, 2 (1970), 321-354.
13. V.V. Raman, "Evolution of the second law of thermodynamics," JCE, 47 (1970), 331-337.
14. M.J. Klein, "The development of Boltzmann's statistical ideas," Acta physica Austriaca, supplement 10 (1970), 53-106; S.G. Brush, The kind of motion we call heat: A history of the kinetic theory of gases in the 19th century (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1976).
15. M.J. Klein, "The development of Boltzmann's statistical ideas," Acta physica Austriaca, supplement 10 (1970), 53-106; S.G. Brush, The kind of motion we call heat: A history of the kinetic theory of gases in the 19th century (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1976).
16. V.M. Schelar, "Thermochemistry and the third law of thermodynamics," Chymia, 11 (1966), 99-124; H. Kragh, "Julius Thomsen and classical thermochemistry," British journal for the history of science, 17 (1984), 255-272. For details on earlier conceptions of affinity, see T.L. Levere, Affinity and matter. Elements of chemical philosophy 1800-1865 (Oxford, 1971).
17. V.M. Schelar, "Thermochemistry and the third law of thermodynamics," Chymia, 11 (1966), 99-124; H. Kragh, "Julius Thomsen and classical thermochemistry," British journal for the history of science, 17 (1984), 255-272. For details on earlier conceptions of affinity, see T.L. Levere, Affinity and matter. Elements of chemical philosophy 1800-1865 (Oxford, 1971).
18. V.M. Schelar, "Thermochemistry and the third law of thermodynamics," Chymia, 11 (1966), 99-124; H. Kragh, "Julius Thomsen and classical thermochemistry," British journal for the history of science, 17 (1984), 255-272. For details on earlier conceptions of affinity, see T.L. Levere, Affinity and matter. Elements of chemical philosophy 1800-1865 (Oxford, 1971).
19. M.M. Pattison Muir, Principles of chemistry (London, 1884). For other contemporary sources, see Kragh (ibid.) and also L. Médard and H. Tachoire, Histoire de la thermochimie: Prélude à la thermodynamique chimique (Aix-en-Provence, 1994).
20. M.M. Pattison Muir, Principles of chemistry (London, 1884). For other contemporary sources, see Kragh (ibid.) and also L. Médard and H. Tachoire, Histoire de la thermochimie: Prélude à la thermodynamique chimique (Aix-en-Provence, 1994).
21. M.M. Pattison Muir, Principles of chemistry (London, 1884). For other contemporary sources, see Kragh (ibid.) and also L. Médard and H. Tachoire, Histoire de la thermochimie: Prélude à la thermodynamique chimique (Aix-en-Provence, 1994).
22. M. Berthelot, "Le principe du travail maximum et l'entropie," CR, 118 (1894), 1378-1392. Berthelot's claim was later given some support by Nernst, who elucidated the relationship between the Thomsen-Berthelot principle and the free energy, a relationship that became particularly clear through Nernst's heat theorem, W. Nernst, Theoretische Chemie, 5th edn. (Stuttgart, 1907), 690-708.
23. M. Berthelot, "Le principe du travail maximum et l'entropie," CR, 118 (1894), 1378-1392. Berthelot's claim was later given some support by Nernst, who elucidated the relationship between the Thomsen-Berthelot principle and the free energy, a relationship that became particularly clear through Nernst's heat theorem, W. Nernst, Theoretische Chemie, 5th edn. (Stuttgart, 1907), 690-708.
24. Berthelot (ref. 12), 1385.
25. The case of Berthelot is analyzed in R.G.A. Dolby, "Thermochemistry versus thermodynamics: The nineteenth century controversy," History of science, 22 (1984), 375-400.
26. V.V. Raman, "The permeation of thermodynamics into nineteenth century chemistry," Indian journal for history of science, 10 (1975), 16-37; V.A. Kritsman, "The influence of the ideas of chemical thermodynamics on the formulation of the principles of chemical kinetics in the XIX century" in K. Martinás, L. Ropolyi and P. Szegedi, eds., Thermodynamics: History and philosophy (Singapore, 1991), 480-491.
27. V.V. Raman, "The permeation of thermodynamics into nineteenth century chemistry," Indian journal for history of science, 10 (1975), 16-37; V.A. Kritsman, "The influence of the ideas of chemical thermodynamics on the formulation of the principles of chemical kinetics in the XIX century" in K. Martinás, L. Ropolyi and P. Szegedi, eds., Thermodynamics: History and philosophy (Singapore, 1991), 480-491.
28. H.W. Schröder van der Kolk, "Ueber die mechanische Energie der chemischen Wirkungen," Annalen der Physik, 122 (1864), 439-454.
29. A.F. Horstmann, "Dampfspannung und Verdampfungswärme des Salmiaks," Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 2 (1869), 137-140, and "Zur Theorie der Dissociation," Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 170 (1873), 192-210.
30. A.F. Horstmann, "Dampfspannung und Verdampfungswärme des Salmiaks," Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 2 (1869), 137-140, and "Zur Theorie der Dissociation," Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 170 (1873), 192-210.
31. The maximum-entropy condition for chemical equilibrium was also suggested by the Austrian chemist Leopold Pfaundler in 1873, but in a more restricted way and without invoking the term entropy; H.A.M. Snelders, "Dissociation, Darwinism and entropy: A case-study from the history of physical chemistry," Janus, 64 (1977), 51-75.
32. K. Hutchison, "Der Ursprung der Entropiefunktion bei Rankine und Clausius," Annals of science, 30 (1973), 341-364. William Rankine introduced in 1854 a state function corresponding to the later entropy function. However, he considered it a purely calculational quantity and only discussed it in connection with reversible processes. Rankine may have invented the entropy function, but the entropy law - through which entropy gains its fundamental meaning - was not his invention and was in fact foreign to him.
33. Rayleigh, "On the dissipation of energy," Nature, 11 (1875), 454-455, on 455.
34. F. Massieu, "Sur les fonctions caractéristiques des divers fluides," CR, 69 (1869), 858-860, 1057-1058. For a concise account of the history of thermodynamic potentials, including references to the original literature, see J.R. Partington, An advanced treatise on physical chemistry, vol. 1 (London, 1949), 182-187.
35. F. Massieu, "Sur les fonctions caractéristiques des divers fluides," CR, 69 (1869), 858-860, 1057-1058. For a concise account of the history of thermodynamic potentials, including references to the original literature, see J.R. Partington, An advanced treatise on physical chemistry, vol. 1 (London, 1949), 182-187.
36. W. Lash Miller, "The method of Willard Gibbs in chemical thermodynamics," Chemical reviews, 1 (1925), 293-344; F.G. Donnan and A. Haas, eds., A commentary on the scientific writings of J. Willard Gibbs, vol. 1 (New Haven, 1936; Arno reprint 1980); K. Ghassan Khatib, Change of phase. The transformation of 19th-century thermodynamics: Josiah Willard Gibbs (dissertation, Cornell University, 1992).
37. W. Lash Miller, "The method of Willard Gibbs in chemical thermodynamics," Chemical reviews, 1 (1925), 293-344; F.G. Donnan and A. Haas, eds., A commentary on the scientific writings of J. Willard Gibbs, vol. 1 (New Haven, 1936; Arno reprint 1980); K. Ghassan Khatib, Change of phase. The transformation of 19th-century thermodynamics: Josiah Willard Gibbs (dissertation, Cornell University, 1992).
38. W. Lash Miller, "The method of Willard Gibbs in chemical thermodynamics," Chemical reviews, 1 (1925), 293-344; F.G. Donnan and A. Haas, eds., A commentary on the scientific writings of J. Willard Gibbs, vol. 1 (New Haven, 1936; Arno reprint 1980); K. Ghassan Khatib, Change of phase. The transformation of 19th-century thermodynamics: Josiah Willard Gibbs (dissertation, Cornell University, 1992).
39. H. Kragh, "Between physics and chemistry: Helmholtz's route to a theory of chemical thermodynamics," D. Cahan, ed., Hermann von Helmholtz and the foundations of nineteenth-century science (Berkeley, 1993), 403-431.
40. A form of the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation was derived by William Thomson as early as 1855, but he used the equation only in connection with thermoelasticity and neither he nor others considered it relevant to chemistry. Occasionally the name "Thomson-Helmholtz equation" is used instead of "Gibbs-Helmholtz equation." In 1872 Horstmann derived a form of the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, which he applied to dissociation processes. Like Helmholtz in 1882, Horstmann based his derivation on Clausius' definition of entropy. See Kragh (ref. 23), 422.
41. P. Duhem, Le potentiel thermodynamique et ses applications à la mécanique chimique et à l'étude des phénomènes electriques (Paris, 1886); Duhem, Introduction à la mécanique chimique (Paris, 1893).
42. P. Duhem, Le potentiel thermodynamique et ses applications à la mécanique chimique et à l'étude des phénomènes electriques (Paris, 1886); Duhem, Introduction à la mécanique chimique (Paris, 1893).
43. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
44. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
45. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
46. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
47. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
48. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
49. M. Planck, "Über das Prinzip der Vermehrung der Entropie," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 30 (1887), 562-582, 31 (1887), 189-203, 32 (1887), 462-503; Planck, Treatise on thermodynamics (London, 1903; German original 1897). On Planck as a thermodynamicist, see P. Clark, "Atomism versus thermodynamics," in C. Howson, ed., Method and appraisal in the physical sciences: The critical background to modern science, 1800-1905 (Cambridge, 1974), 41-106; and T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912 (Oxford, 1978), 11-18. Planck's contributions to physical chemistry are examined in R.S. Root-Bernstein, The ionists: Founding physical chemistry, 1872-1890 (dissertation, Princeton University, 1980), 417-473.
50. S. Abiko, "On the chemico-thermal origins of special relativity," HSPS, 22:1 (1991), 1-24; J. Mehra, "Albert Einstein's erste wissenschaftliche Arbeit," Physikalische Blätter, 27 (1971), 385-391.
51. S. Abiko, "On the chemico-thermal origins of special relativity," HSPS, 22:1 (1991), 1-24; J. Mehra, "Albert Einstein's erste wissenschaftliche Arbeit," Physikalische Blätter, 27 (1971), 385-391.
52. E.N. Hiebert, "Developments in physical chemistry at the turn of the century," in C.G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sörbom, eds., Science, technology and society in the time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 97-115; J.W. Servos, Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The making of a science in America (Princeton, 1990); D.K. Barkan, "A usable past: Creating disciplinary space for physical chemistry," in M.J. Nye, J. Richards, and R. Stuewer, eds., The invention of physical science (Dordrecht, 1992), 175-202. According to some authors, physical chemistry is a broader and much older science than the discipline that emerged in the 1880s. See K.J. Laidler, The world of physical chemistry (Oxford, 1993).
53. E.N. Hiebert, "Developments in physical chemistry at the turn of the century," in C.G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sörbom, eds., Science, technology and society in the time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 97-115; J.W. Servos, Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The making of a science in America (Princeton, 1990); D.K. Barkan, "A usable past: Creating disciplinary space for physical chemistry," in M.J. Nye, J. Richards, and R. Stuewer, eds., The invention of physical science (Dordrecht, 1992), 175-202. According to some authors, physical chemistry is a broader and much older science than the discipline that emerged in the 1880s. See K.J. Laidler, The world of physical chemistry (Oxford, 1993).
54. E.N. Hiebert, "Developments in physical chemistry at the turn of the century," in C.G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sörbom, eds., Science, technology and society in the time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 97-115; J.W. Servos, Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The making of a science in America (Princeton, 1990); D.K. Barkan, "A usable past: Creating disciplinary space for physical chemistry," in M.J. Nye, J. Richards, and R. Stuewer, eds., The invention of physical science (Dordrecht, 1992), 175-202. According to some authors, physical chemistry is a broader and much older science than the discipline that emerged in the 1880s. See K.J. Laidler, The world of physical chemistry (Oxford, 1993).
55. E.N. Hiebert, "Developments in physical chemistry at the turn of the century," in C.G. Bernhard, E. Crawford and P. Sörbom, eds., Science, technology and society in the time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford, 1982), 97-115; J.W. Servos, Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: The making of a science in America (Princeton, 1990); D.K. Barkan, "A usable past: Creating disciplinary space for physical chemistry," in M.J. Nye, J. Richards, and R. Stuewer, eds., The invention of physical science (Dordrecht, 1992), 175-202. According to some authors, physical chemistry is a broader and much older science than the discipline that emerged in the 1880s. See K.J. Laidler, The world of physical chemistry (Oxford, 1993).
56. J.H. van't Hoff, Études de dynamique chimique (Amsterdam, 1884). An English translation, made by Thomas Ewan and based upon Ernst Cohen's extended and revised German edition of 1896, appeared as Studies in chemical dynamics (London, 1896). For background, see H.A.M. Snelders, "J.H. van't Hoff's research school in Amsterdam (1877-1895)," Janus, 71 (1984), 1-30.
57. J.H. van't Hoff, Études de dynamique chimique (Amsterdam, 1884). An English translation, made by Thomas Ewan and based upon Ernst Cohen's extended and revised German edition of 1896, appeared as Studies in chemical dynamics (London, 1896). For background, see H.A.M. Snelders, "J.H. van't Hoff's research school in Amsterdam (1877-1895)," Janus, 71 (1984), 1-30.
58. J.H. van't Hoff, Études de dynamique chimique (Amsterdam, 1884). An English translation, made by Thomas Ewan and based upon Ernst Cohen's extended and revised German edition of 1896, appeared as Studies in chemical dynamics (London, 1896). For background, see H.A.M. Snelders, "J.H. van't Hoff's research school in Amsterdam (1877-1895)," Janus, 71 (1984), 1-30.
59. Quoted from K. J. Laidler, "Chemical kinetics and the origins of physical chemistry," Archive for the history of exact sciences, 32 (1985), 43-75, on 50.
60. J.H. van't Hoff, Vorlesungen über theoretische und physikalische Chemie (3 vols., Braunschweig, 1898-1900); English translation by R.A. Lehrfeld as Lectures on theoretical and physical chemistry (3 vols., London, 1898-1900).
61. J.H. van't Hoff, Vorlesungen über theoretische und physikalische Chemie (3 vols., Braunschweig, 1898-1900); English translation by R.A. Lehrfeld as Lectures on theoretical and physical chemistry (3 vols., London, 1898-1900).
62. M.M. Pattison Muir, A history of chemical theories and laws (New York, 1907), 430-459; M.W. Lindauer, "The evolution of the concept of chemical equilibrium from 1775 to 1923," JCE, 39 (1962), 384-390.
63. M.M. Pattison Muir, A history of chemical theories and laws (New York, 1907), 430-459; M.W. Lindauer, "The evolution of the concept of chemical equilibrium from 1775 to 1923," JCE, 39 (1962), 384-390.
64. J.H. van't Hoff, "Loi de l'equilibre chimique dans l'état dilué, gazeux ou dissous," Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademi, Handlingar, 21:17 (1886), 3-41.
65. W. Nernst, Experimental and theoretical applications of thermodynamics to chemistry (New Haven, 1906), 3-4.
66. Nernst (ref. 12), 24.
67. J.H. van't Hoff, Physical chemistry in the service of the sciences (Chicago, 1903), 24; Barkan (ref. 28), 120.
68. For the history of the heat theorem, see F. Simon, "The third law of thermodynamics: An historical survey," Yearbook of the physical society (London, 1956), 1-22; E.N. Hiebert, "Nernst, Hermann Walther," DSB, 10, 432-453; W.H. Cropper, "Walther Nernst and the last law," JCE, 64 (1987), 3-8.
69. For the history of the heat theorem, see F. Simon, "The third law of thermodynamics: An historical survey," Yearbook of the physical society (London, 1956), 1-22; E.N. Hiebert, "Nernst, Hermann Walther," DSB, 10, 432-453; W.H. Cropper, "Walther Nernst and the last law," JCE, 64 (1987), 3-8.
70. For the history of the heat theorem, see F. Simon, "The third law of thermodynamics: An historical survey," Yearbook of the physical society (London, 1956), 1-22; E.N. Hiebert, "Nernst, Hermann Walther," DSB, 10, 432-453; W.H. Cropper, "Walther Nernst and the last law," JCE, 64 (1987), 3-8.
71. W. Nernst, The new heat theorem: Its foundations in theory and experiment (New York, 1926; German original 1918), 85. As late as 1926, in the 11th to 15th editions of his Theoretische Chemie, Nernst repeated his critical formulation of the 1907 edition. Referring to the heat theorem, he stressed that entropy is only a matter of differences, not absolute values. According to Nernst, those who claimed differently (such as Planck) had not understood the basic principles of thermodynamics "however many thermodynamic works they may have published" (on 804).
72. W. Nernst, "Zur neueren Entwicklung der Thermodynamik," Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Ärtzte, Verhandlungen, 1 (1912), 100-116.
73. Servos (ref. 28), 138-151. As we shall see, Lewis modified his views.
74. E.N. Hiebert, "The energetics controversy and the new thermodynamics," in D.H.D. Roller, ed., Perspectives in the history of science and technology (Norman, OK, 1971), 67-86; R.J. Deltete, The energetics controversy in late nineteenth-century Germany: Helm, Ostwald and their critics (dissertation, Yale University, 1983).
75. E.N. Hiebert, "The energetics controversy and the new thermodynamics," in D.H.D. Roller, ed., Perspectives in the history of science and technology (Norman, OK, 1971), 67-86; R.J. Deltete, The energetics controversy in late nineteenth-century Germany: Helm, Ostwald and their critics (dissertation, Yale University, 1983).
76. W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, vol. 2, part 1 (Leipzig, 1910), 9-20, 470-495, on 472; A. Leegwater, "The development of Wilhelm Ostwald's chemical energetics," Centaurus, 29 (1986), 314-337. On Ostwald's energeticism, see also C. Hakfoort, "Science deified: Wilhelm Ostwald's energeticist world-view and the history of scientism," Annals of science, 49 (1992), 525-544.
77. W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, vol. 2, part 1 (Leipzig, 1910), 9-20, 470-495, on 472; A. Leegwater, "The development of Wilhelm Ostwald's chemical energetics," Centaurus, 29 (1986), 314-337. On Ostwald's energeticism, see also C. Hakfoort, "Science deified: Wilhelm Ostwald's energeticist world-view and the history of scientism," Annals of science, 49 (1992), 525-544.
78. W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, vol. 2, part 1 (Leipzig, 1910), 9-20, 470-495, on 472; A. Leegwater, "The development of Wilhelm Ostwald's chemical energetics," Centaurus, 29 (1986), 314-337. On Ostwald's energeticism, see also C. Hakfoort, "Science deified: Wilhelm Ostwald's energeticist world-view and the history of scientism," Annals of science, 49 (1992), 525-544.
79. G.N. Lewis, "The law of physico-chemical change," American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Proceedings, 37 (1901), 49-69.
80. Ostwald to Boltzmann, 2 June 1892, in H.-G. Körber, ed., Aus dem wissenschaftlichen Briefwechsel Wilhelm Ostwalds. I. Teil (Berlin, 1961), 9.
81. W. Ostwald, "Studien zur Energetik. II. Grundlinien der allgemeinen Energetik," Akademie der Wissenschaft, Leipzig, Berichte und Verhandlungen, Math.-Phys. Classe, 1892, III, 44. Here quoted from U. Niedersen, "Zu den Problemen von Reversibilität, Irreversibilität und Zeit im Schaffen Wilhelm Ostwalds," NTM (Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Medizin), 23 (1986), 47-59, on 50.
82. W. Ostwald, "Studien zur Energetik. II. Grundlinien der allgemeinen Energetik," Akademie der Wissenschaft, Leipzig, Berichte und Verhandlungen, Math.-Phys. Classe, 1892, III, 44. Here quoted from U. Niedersen, "Zu den Problemen von Reversibilität, Irreversibilität und Zeit im Schaffen Wilhelm Ostwalds," NTM (Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Medizin), 23 (1986), 47-59, on 50.
83. See the correspondence between Ostwald and Planck during 1892/3 as reproduced in Körber (ref. 44), 42-59.
84. H.A.M. Snelders, "The Dutch physical chemist J.J. van Laar (1860-1938) versus J.H. van't Hoff's 'osmotic school'," Centaurus, 29 (1986), 53-71.
85. J.J. van Laar, "Zur Antwort an Herrn Prof. W. Nernst," ZPC, 19 (1896), 318-332, a lengthy reply to W. Nernst, "Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn J.J. van Laar," ZPC, 18 (1895), 664-66 5 , which related to van Laar, "Ueber die genauen Formel für den osmotischen Druck [etc.]," ZPC, 15 (1894), 457-497 , and 18 (1895), 245-282. Similar arguments, also directed against Nernst's conception of the theory of solutions, were advanced by Hans Jahn, the thermochemist turned thermodynamicist. See H. Jahn, "Entwurf einer erweiterten Theorie der verdünnten Lösungen," ZPC, 41 (1902), 257-301.
86. J.J. van Laar, "Zur Antwort an Herrn Prof. W. Nernst," ZPC, 19 (1896), 318-332, a lengthy reply to W. Nernst, "Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn J.J. van Laar," ZPC, 18 (1895), 664-66 5 , which related to van Laar, "Ueber die genauen Formel für den osmotischen Druck [etc.]," ZPC, 15 (1894), 457-497 , and 18 (1895), 245-282. Similar arguments, also directed against Nernst's conception of the theory of solutions, were advanced by Hans Jahn, the thermochemist turned thermodynamicist. See H. Jahn, "Entwurf einer erweiterten Theorie der verdünnten Lösungen," ZPC, 41 (1902), 257-301.
87. J.J. van Laar, "Zur Antwort an Herrn Prof. W. Nernst," ZPC, 19 (1896), 318-332, a lengthy reply to W. Nernst, "Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn J.J. van Laar," ZPC, 18 (1895), 664-66 5 , which related to van Laar, "Ueber die genauen Formel für den osmotischen Druck [etc.]," ZPC, 15 (1894), 457-497 , and 18 (1895), 245-282. Similar arguments, also directed against Nernst's conception of the theory of solutions, were advanced by Hans Jahn, the thermochemist turned thermodynamicist. See H. Jahn, "Entwurf einer erweiterten Theorie der verdünnten Lösungen," ZPC, 41 (1902), 257-301.
88. J.J. van Laar, "Zur Antwort an Herrn Prof. W. Nernst," ZPC, 19 (1896), 318-332, a lengthy reply to W. Nernst, "Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn J.J. van Laar," ZPC, 18 (1895), 664-66 5 , which related to van Laar, "Ueber die genauen Formel für den osmotischen Druck [etc.]," ZPC, 15 (1894), 457-497 , and 18 (1895), 245-282. Similar arguments, also directed against Nernst's conception of the theory of solutions, were advanced by Hans Jahn, the thermochemist turned thermodynamicist. See H. Jahn, "Entwurf einer erweiterten Theorie der verdünnten Lösungen," ZPC, 41 (1902), 257-301.
89. J.J. van Laar, "Zur Antwort an Herrn Prof. W. Nernst," ZPC, 19 (1896), 318-332, a lengthy reply to W. Nernst, "Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung des Herrn J.J. van Laar," ZPC, 18 (1895), 664-66 5 , which related to van Laar, "Ueber die genauen Formel für den osmotischen Druck [etc.]," ZPC, 15 (1894), 457-497 , and 18 (1895), 245-282. Similar arguments, also directed against Nernst's conception of the theory of solutions, were advanced by Hans Jahn, the thermochemist turned thermodynamicist. See H. Jahn, "Entwurf einer erweiterten Theorie der verdünnten Lösungen," ZPC, 41 (1902), 257-301.
90. Snelders (ref. 47), 67. For mathematical chemistry, see J.J. van Laar, Lehrbuch der mathematischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1901). A rather different, energeticist version of mathematical chemistry had been proposed earlier by Georg Helm, Helm, Grundzüge der mathematischen Chemie: Energetik der chemischen Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1894).
91. Snelders (ref. 47), 67. For mathematical chemistry, see J.J. van Laar, Lehrbuch der mathematischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1901). A rather different, energeticist version of mathematical chemistry had been proposed earlier by Georg Helm, Helm, Grundzüge der mathematischen Chemie: Energetik der chemischen Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1894).
92. J.J. van Laar, Sechs Vorträge über das thermochemische Potential (Braunschweig, 1906), 34.
93. H.S. van Klooster, "J. J. van Laar, pioneer in chemical thermodynamics," JCE, 39 (1962), 74-76.
94. M. Planck, "Verdampfen, Schmelzen und Sublimierung," Annalen der Physik, 15 (1882), 446-475, on 474. On the conflict between the second law and the atomic hypothesis, see Clark (ref. 26) and M.J. Nye, "The nineteenth-century atomic debates and the dilemma of an 'indifferent hypothesis'," Studies in the history and philosophy of science, 7 (1976), 245-269.
95. M. Planck, "Verdampfen, Schmelzen und Sublimierung," Annalen der Physik, 15 (1882), 446-475, on 474. On the conflict between the second law and the atomic hypothesis, see Clark (ref. 26) and M.J. Nye, "The nineteenth-century atomic debates and the dilemma of an 'indifferent hypothesis'," Studies in the history and philosophy of science, 7 (1976), 245-269.
96. J.W. Gibbs, Elementary principles in statistical mechanics, developed with special reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics (New York, 1902), x.
97. Our sample of textbooks is taken principally from the English-American literature and translations of foreign works. We have used the OCLC on-line catalog to track down physical chemistry and thermodynamic textbooks published in English, French, and German between 1900 and 1925. Based on the search, we believe our sample includes a majority of the texts that attained wide use during this period. Our confidence in the representative quality of the sample is bolstered by the fact that many of the works we cite went through multiple editions: Eucken, Fundamentals (ref. 84), 7; Jones, Elements (ref. 58), 4; McC. Lewis, System (ref. 57), 4; Morgan, Elements (ref. 60), 5; Nernst, Theoretische Chemie (ref. 12), 15 (in German) and 5 (in English); Senter, Outlines (ref. 59), 18; Walker, Introduction (ref. 56), 10.
98. J.H. Brooke, "Methods and methodology in the development of organic chemistry," Ambix, 34 (1987), 147-155, on 150 and 153.
99. J. Walker, Introduction to physical chemistry (London, 1899). With respect to the topics discussed here the 8th edition, published in 1919, is essentially identical.
100. W.C. McC. Lewis, A system of physical chemistry, vol. 1, Kinetic theory; vol. 2, Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics (New York, 1916).
101. H.C. Jones, The elements of physical chemistry (New York, 1902). The topics discussed here were treated identically in the 4th edition of 1910.
102. G. Senter, Outlines of physical chemistry (London, 1909).
103. J. Livingston, R. Morgan, Elements of physical chemistry (New York, 1905).
104. A.A. Noyes, The general principles of physical science (New York, 1902).
105. S.L. Bigelow, Theoretical and physical chemistry (New York, 1912).
106. The derivation of the law of mass action in terms of reaction velocities goes back to van't Hoff, who was also the first to treat equilibrium processes thermodynamically. See Lindauer (ref. 32) and Laidler (ref. 30).
107. Senter (ref. 59), 134-135 (emphasis in the original).
108. E.W. Washburn, An introduction to the principles of physical chemistry from the standpoint of modern atomistics and thermodynamics: A course of instruction for students intending to enter physics or chemistry as a profession (New York, 1915), vi-vii.
109. Ibid., 111-112.
110. Walker (ref. 56), 357.
111. C.W. Berry, The temperature-entropy diagram, 2nd edn. (New York, 1908), ix.
112. Washburn (ref. 65), vii.
113. Ibid., 101.
114. Walker (ref. 56).
115. A.M. Reychler, Physikalisch-chemische Theorien, ed. B. Kühn (Braunschweig, 1903), 302.
116. Ostwald's role in educating an entire generation of influential physical chemists, particularly in the United States, has been laid out in detail by Servos (ref. 28), 46-70.
117. Servos (ref. 28), 42-43.
118. Its title spawned imitations, such as Wolfgang Pauli's Physical chemistry in the service of medicine (New York, 1907) and James Arthur Harris's Physical chemistry in the service of phytogeography (New York, 1917).
119. Its title spawned imitations, such as Wolfgang Pauli's Physical chemistry in the service of medicine (New York, 1907) and James Arthur Harris's Physical chemistry in the service of phytogeography (New York, 1917).
120. Morgan (ref. 60), "Preface to the third edition," viii.
121. Walker (ref. 56), 277.
122. Ibid., 91.
123. P. Duhem, Thermodynamics and chemistry: A non-mathematical treatment for chemists and students of chemistry, tr. G.K. Burgess (New York, 1903), chapt. 4. The mathematically oriented school of thermodynamicists whose adherents incorporated entropy freely into their calculations produced works like E. Ariès, La statique chimique basée sur les deux principes fondamentaux de la thermodynamique (Paris, 1904). Ariè does not mention molecules or refer to specific chemical processes.
124. P. Duhem, Thermodynamics and chemistry: A non-mathematical treatment for chemists and students of chemistry, tr. G.K. Burgess (New York, 1903), chapt. 4. The mathematically oriented school of thermodynamicists whose adherents incorporated entropy freely into their calculations produced works like E. Ariès, La statique chimique basée sur les deux principes fondamentaux de la thermodynamique (Paris, 1904). Ariè does not mention molecules or refer to specific chemical processes.
125. Washburn (ref. 65), v.
126. Van't Hoff, Theoretical and physical chemistry (ref. 31), 21.
127. Nernst, Theoretical chemistry, 7th edn. (1913), 23.
128. A. Eucken, Fundamentals of physical chemistry for students of chemistry and related sciences, trans. E.R. Jette and V.K. LaMer (New York, 1925), 58. The German original was Eucken, Grundriss der physikalische Chemie (Leipzig, 1922).
129. A. Eucken, Fundamentals of physical chemistry for students of chemistry and related sciences, trans. E.R. Jette and V.K. LaMer (New York, 1925), 58. The German original was Eucken, Grundriss der physikalische Chemie (Leipzig, 1922).
130. McC. Lewis (ref. 57), 1, vii.
131. H.A. Perkins, An introduction to general thermodynamics: An elementary treatise on the fundamental principles and their simpler applications (New York, 1912).
132. A.W.D. [A. Walter Duff], review of Perkins (ref. 86), in Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Journal, 16 (1912-13), 314-315, on 315. The parenthetical reference is not to Algernon but to James Swinburne, Entropy; or, Thermodynamics from an engineer's standpoint, and the reversibility of thermodynamics (New York, 1903).
133. A.W.D. [A. Walter Duff], review of Perkins (ref. 86), in Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Journal, 16 (1912-13), 314-315, on 315. The parenthetical reference is not to Algernon but to James Swinburne, Entropy; or, Thermodynamics from an engineer's standpoint, and the reversibility of thermodynamics (New York, 1903).
134. J. Perrin, Traité de chimie physique. Les principes (Paris, 1903), chapt. 4, 141-180, on 178-179 (emphasis added). This chapter contains numerous versions of the second law, some unique; among Perrin's favorites are variations on the statement that "it is highly improbable that an isolated system would pass through the same state twice; it becomes more improbable as the system becomes more complex" (144-145). On Perrin's book, see M.J. Nye, Molecular reality: A perspective on the scientific work of Jean Perrin (London, 1972).
135. J. Perrin, Traité de chimie physique. Les principes (Paris, 1903), chapt. 4, 141-180, on 178-179 (emphasis added). This chapter contains numerous versions of the second law, some unique; among Perrin's favorites are variations on the statement that "it is highly improbable that an isolated system would pass through the same state twice; it becomes more improbable as the system becomes more complex" (144-145). On Perrin's book, see M.J. Nye, Molecular reality: A perspective on the scientific work of Jean Perrin (London, 1972).
136. O. Sackur, A textbook of thermo-chemistry and thermodynamics, trans. and rev. G.E. Gibson (London, 1917), 149; the German original (Lehrbuch der Thermochemie und Thermodynamik) dates from 1912.
137. O. Sackur, A textbook of thermo-chemistry and thermodynamics, trans. and rev. G.E. Gibson (London, 1917), 149; the German original (Lehrbuch der Thermochemie und Thermodynamik) dates from 1912.
138. Ibid., 154-166, on 163.
139. J.R. Partington, A text-book of thermodynamics (with special reference to chemistry) (London, 1913), "Preface." As befits the work of the future historian of chemistry, the exposition touches a number of historical and conceptual issues absent from virtually all other text-books, including discussions of Maxwell's demon and the heat death of the universe (the term is not used).
140. Ibid., 92-93.
141. J.R. Partington, Chemical thermodynamics: An introduction to general thermodynamics and its applications to chemistry (London, 1924).
142. William Ramsey's Introduction to the study of physical chemistry (London, 1904) served as an overview of a series of physical chemistry textbooks under his general editorship. In his summary of chemical thermodynamics Ramsey noted that the Thomsen-Berthelot law had been replaced by another, "that of all possible systems that one is the most stable in which the entropy is at a maximum. The consideration of this doctrine will be found in the volume on thermodynamics" (48). Donnan was to be the author of the volume referred to, but it never appeared. McC. Lewis's System, which was part of the same series, replaced it.
143. Ramsey (ref. 93), 2.
144. A. Michael, "Outline of a theory of organic chemistry founded on the law of entropy," JACS, 32 (1910), 990-1007. Cf. A.B. Costa, "Arthur Michael: The meeting of thermodynamics and organic chemistry," JCE, 48 (1971), 243-246.
145. A. Michael, "Outline of a theory of organic chemistry founded on the law of entropy," JACS, 32 (1910), 990-1007. Cf. A.B. Costa, "Arthur Michael: The meeting of thermodynamics and organic chemistry," JCE, 48 (1971), 243-246.
146. S. Arrhenius, "L'énergie libre," in Conférences sur quelques thèmes choisis de la chimie physique, faites à l'Université de Paris du 6 au 13 mars 1911 (Paris, 1912), 43-72, on 43.
147. F.H. MacDougall, Thermodynamics and chemistry (New York, 1921), 258.
148. Nernst (ref. 82), 740-742.
149. J.H. van't Hoff, "The relationship of physical chemistry to physics and chemistry," Journal of physical chemistry, 9 (1905), 81-89, on 89.
150. K. Arndt, A summary of physical chemistry, trans. W.H. Patterson (London, 1925), 1.
151. Senter (ref. 59), 134.
152. Snelders (ref. 18), 62-63.
153. K.G. Denbigh and J.S. Denbigh, Entropy in relation to incomplete knowledge (Cambridge, 1985), 3.
154. Partington (ref. 90), 83.
155. M. Planck, Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik, 3rd edn. (Leipzig, 1911), 76. The extent to which chemists lagged behind physicists in recognizing this difference, and its effect on physical chemistry, has been well summarized by Hiebert (ref. 28), 110.
156. Sackur (ref. 88), 322-324.
157. Marie Boas Hall, "The inductive sciences in nineteenth-century England," in Nature, experiment and the sciences: Essays on Galileo and the history of science in honour of Stillman Drake, ed. T.H. Levere and W.R. Shea (Dordrecht, 1990), 225-247, on 241.
158. Swinburne (ref. 86), 3, 7.
159. Ibid., 105-111.
160. F.G. Donnan, The influence of J. Willard Gibbs on the science of physical chemistry: An address on the occasion of the centenary celebration of the founding of the Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, 1924), 12.
161. Partington (ref. 91), 53.
162. Denbigh and Denbigh (ref. 104), 1-17.
163. Perrin (ref. 88), 177, 179-180.
164. H. Bergson, Creative evolution (London, 1911; French original 1907), 256.
165. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
166. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
167. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
168. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
169. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
170. For extrascientific applications of the entropy law, see E. Meyerson, Identity and reality (London, 1930), 259-290; E.N. Hiebert, "The uses and abuses of thermodynamics in religion," Dædalus, 95 (1966), 1046-1080; G. Myers, "Nineteenth-century popularizations of thermodynamics and the rhetoric of social prophecy," Victorian studies, 29 (1986), 35-66, reprinted in P. Brantlinger, ed., Energy and entropy: Science and culture in Victorian Britain (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 307-38; S. G. Brush, "Thermodynamics and history," The graduate journal, 7 (1967), 477-565; R.J. Seeger, "On humanistic aspects of entropy," Physis, 9 (1967), 215-234.
171. Bigelow (ref. 62), 7.
172. Nernst, Theoretical chemistry, 5th edn. (1907), 2-3.
173. W.C. McC. Lewis, Physical chemistry and scientific thought: An inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Liverpool on Friday, 16 January 1914
174. M.J. Nye, "Physics and chemistry: Commensurate or incommensurate sciences?" in Nye et al., eds. (ref. 28), 205-224. We see perhaps more unease about these relationships among chemists, even physical chemists, in the pre-World War I period than do Nye and Barkan (ref. 28).
175. George F. Barker, "The borderland between chemistry and physics: An address delivered on assuming the chair as president of the society for 1891," JACS, 13 (1891), 11-29, on 29.
176. Anthony N. Stranges, Electrons and valence. Development of the theory, 1900-1925 (College Station, Texas, 1982); H. Kragh, "Bohr's atomic theory and the chemists, 1913-1925," Rivista di storia della scienza, 2 (1985), 463-486.
177. Anthony N. Stranges, Electrons and valence. Development of the theory, 1900-1925 (College Station, Texas, 1982); H. Kragh, "Bohr's atomic theory and the chemists, 1913-1925," Rivista di storia della scienza, 2 (1985), 463-486.
178. L. Meyer, Outlines of theoretical chemistry, trans. P.P. Bedson and W.C. Williams (London, 1892), 3.
179. W. Nernst, "Die Entwicklung der allgemeinen und physikalischen Chemie," Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 40 (1907), 4617-4626, on 4617-4618; Nernst, "Development of general and physical chemistry during the last forty years," Smithsonian Institution, Annual report, 1907-08, 245-253. Despite the oft-reported condescension with which physical chemists regarded organic chemistry, Nernst opined that "the doctrine of the constitution of organic compounds stands at the head of all theories that the human mind has conceived" (4618). Fifteen years later G.N. Lewis expressed a very similar view: "No generalization of science. . .has ever achieved a greater success in assembling in simple form a multitude of heterogenous observations than this group of ideas which we call structural theory." Lewis, Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules (New York, 1923), 20-21.
180. W. Nernst, "Die Entwicklung der allgemeinen und physikalischen Chemie," Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 40 (1907), 4617-4626, on 4617-4618; Nernst, "Development of general and physical chemistry during the last forty years," Smithsonian Institution, Annual report, 1907-08, 245-253. Despite the oft-reported condescension with which physical chemists regarded organic chemistry, Nernst opined that "the doctrine of the constitution of organic compounds stands at the head of all theories that the human mind has conceived" (4618). Fifteen years later G.N. Lewis expressed a very similar view: "No generalization of science. . .has ever achieved a greater success in assembling in simple form a multitude of heterogenous observations than this group of ideas which we call structural theory." Lewis, Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules (New York, 1923), 20-21.
181. W. Nernst, "Die Entwicklung der allgemeinen und physikalischen Chemie," Deutsche chemische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 40 (1907), 4617-4626, on 4617-4618; Nernst, "Development of general and physical chemistry during the last forty years," Smithsonian Institution, Annual report, 1907-08, 245-253. Despite the oft-reported condescension with which physical chemists regarded organic chemistry, Nernst opined that "the doctrine of the constitution of organic compounds stands at the head of all theories that the human mind has conceived" (4618). Fifteen years later G.N. Lewis expressed a very similar view: "No generalization of science. . .has ever achieved a greater success in assembling in simple form a multitude of heterogenous observations than this group of ideas which we call structural theory." Lewis, Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules (New York, 1923), 20-21.
182. J. Walker, "The role of the physicist in the development of chemistry," Journal of the chemical society (1922), 735-745, on 736.
183. Eucken (ref. 83), x.
184. McC. Lewis (ref. 56), 1, 129.
185. J.W. Mellor, Chemical statics and dynamics (London, 1904), 2.
186. Senter (ref. 59), 139 (emphasis in the original).
187. W.C. McC. Lewis, A system of physical chemistry (3 vols., London, 1919), 2, 47-48. Very similar material, in equally abbreviated form, was introduced into the English version of Eucken's book by his American translators (ref. 83).
188. G.N. Lewis and M. Randall, Thermodynamics and the free energy of chemical substances (New York, 1923).
189. H.S. Taylor, Treatise (ref. 132).
190. H.S. Taylor, "The energetics of chemical change," in Treatise, vol. 1, 63. Interestingly, Taylor wrote a less demanding one-volume introductory physical chemistry text in which entropy is not mentioned at all: H.S. Taylor, Elementary physical chemistry (New York, 1927).
191. H.S. Taylor, "The energetics of chemical change," in Treatise, vol. 1, 63. Interestingly, Taylor wrote a less demanding one-volume introductory physical chemistry text in which entropy is not mentioned at all: H.S. Taylor, Elementary physical chemistry (New York, 1927).
192. W.H. Rodebush, "The third law of thermodynamics and the calculation of chemical constants," in Treatise, vol. 2, 1131-1203, on 1161-1164.
193. Ibid., 1131-1160.
194. Ibid., 1186-1191, on 1188.
195. The relation between these two traditions within physical chemistry is discussed at various points in Servos (ref. 28); see esp. 321-324.
196. Laidler (ref. 28), 107.
197. McC. Lewis (ref. 57), 2, 1-2.
198. H.S. Taylor, "Preface," Treatise, vol. 1, vii. The pendulum gets nudged a little further on p. 67: "It will emerge that the thermodynamic method constitutes a most effective auxiliary of the atomistic or kinetic method of treatment" (emphasis added).
199. C.N. Hinshelwood, Thermodynamics for students of chemistry (New York, 1926), iii.
200. Ibid., 14, 17, 31, 104, 173.
201. Lewis and Randall (ref. 130), 110.
202. Myers (ref. 116).