Violence against the press in Latin America: Protections and remedies in international law

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 78, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 275-290

  Perkins, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038448820     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900107800205     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Mary A. Gardner, The Press of Guatemala, Journalism Monographs, no. 18 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1971), 43-44.
2. Committee to Protect Journalists, "Journalists Killed 1989-1998," http://www.cpj.org/attacks98/10yrKilledChart.html.
3. Committee to Protect Journalists, "Attacks on the Press in 1999," http://www.cpj.org/attacks99/frameset_att99/frameset_att99.html.
4. Committee to Protect Journalists, "24 Journalists Killed in 2000," http://www.cpj.org/killed/killed00.html.
5. Committee to Protect Journalists, "20 Journalists Killed: Motive Unconfirmed," http://www.cpj.org/killed/ killed00.html#unconfirmed.
6. Committee to Protect Journalists, "Journalists Killed," www.cpj.org/killed/killed_index.html.
7. Committee to Protect Journalists, "24 Journalists Killed in 2000," http://www.cpj.org/killed/killed00.html.
8. Inter-American Press Association, Press Freedom in the Americas (Miami: Inter-American Press Association, 1999), 98-101.
9. International Federation of Journalists, "IFJ Killed List 2000," http://www.ifj.org/hrights/killlist/kill00.html.
10. IFJ, "IFJ Killed List 1998," http://www.ifj.org/hrights/killlist/ killlist.html.
11. IFJ, "IFJ Killed List 1999," http://www.ifj.org/hrights/killlist/ kill99.html.
12. See, for example, CPJ, "20 Journalists Killed: Motive Unconfirmed."
13. Ricardo Trotti, "The Early Battles Against Impunity," in Impunity No More, ed. Ricardo Trotti (Miami: Inter-American Press Association, 1999), 137.
14. Trotti, "The Early Battles Against Impunity," 133, 140.
15. Jon Vanden Heuvel and Everette E. Dennis, Changing Patterns: Latin America's Vital Media (New York: The Freedom Forum Media Studies Center, 1995), 50.
16. Eduardo Ulibarri and Ricardo Trotti, "Difficulties and dangers for the free press in the Americas," in Media and Democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. Rosa Gonzalez (Paris: UNESCO, 1996), 193.
17. Trotti, "The Early Battles Against Impunity," 131.
18. See also, Robert T. Buckman, "Current Status of the Mass Media in Latin America," in Communications in Latin America: Journalism, Mass Media, and Society, ed. Richard R. Cole (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1996), 13-26; and Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, Latin American Journalism (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 1991), 52-60.
19. See also, Robert T. Buckman, "Current Status of the Mass Media in Latin America," in Communications in Latin America: Journalism, Mass Media, and Society, ed. Richard R. Cole (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1996), 13-26; and Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, Latin American Journalism (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 1991), 52-60.
20. Gardner, "The Press of Guatemala," 43-45; Buckman, "Current Status of the Mass Media in Latin America," 13; Bruce Garrison and Julio E. Muñoz, "The Free and Not-So-Free Press of Latin America and the Caribbean," Newspaper Research Journal 7 (summer 1986): 63; Jerry W. Knudson, "Under the Gun: The Bolivian Press and Military Rule, 1964-1982" Gazette 58 (1996): 87; Marvin Alisky, "Government-Press Relations in Peru," Journalism Quarterly 53 (winter 1976): 661-65.
21. Gardner, "The Press of Guatemala," 43-45; Buckman, "Current Status of the Mass Media in Latin America," 13; Bruce Garrison and Julio E. Muñoz, "The Free and Not-So-Free Press of Latin America and the Caribbean," Newspaper Research Journal 7 (summer 1986): 63; Jerry W. Knudson, "Under the Gun: The Bolivian Press and Military Rule, 1964-1982" Gazette 58 (1996): 87; Marvin Alisky, "Government-Press Relations in Peru," Journalism Quarterly 53 (winter 1976): 661-65.
22. Gardner, "The Press of Guatemala," 43-45; Buckman, "Current Status of the Mass Media in Latin America," 13; Bruce Garrison and Julio E. Muñoz, "The Free and Not-So-Free Press of Latin America and the Caribbean," Newspaper Research Journal 7 (summer 1986): 63; Jerry W. Knudson, "Under the Gun: The Bolivian Press and Military Rule, 1964-1982" Gazette 58 (1996): 87; Marvin Alisky, "Government-Press Relations in Peru," Journalism Quarterly 53 (winter 1976): 661-65.
23. Robert N. Pierce, Keeping the Flame (New York: Hastings House, 1979), 200-205; see generally, Marvin Alisky, Latin American Media: Guidance and Censorship (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1981) and Cole, ed., Communications in Latin America: Journalism, Mass Media, and Society.
24. Robert N. Pierce, Keeping the Flame (New York: Hastings House, 1979), 200-205; see generally, Marvin Alisky, Latin American Media: Guidance and Censorship (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1981) and Cole, ed., Communications in Latin America: Journalism, Mass Media, and Society.
25. Robert N. Pierce, Keeping the Flame (New York: Hastings House, 1979), 200-205; see generally, Marvin Alisky, Latin American Media: Guidance and Censorship (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1981) and Cole, ed., Communications in Latin America: Journalism, Mass Media, and Society.
26. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
27. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
28. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
29. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
30. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
31. Margaret A. Blanchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945-1952 (New York: Longman, 1986); Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "First Amendment Influence in Argentine Republic Law and Jurisprudence," Communication Law and Policy 4 (spring 1999): 149; Susana N. Vittadini Andres, "Freedom of Expression in Third World Countries: The Argentine Case," Journal of International Communication 5 (June/December 1998): 181; Tim Gallimore, "Radio and Television Broadcasting to Cuba: U.S. Communication Policy and the International First Amendment," Gazette 52 (1993): 43; Kyu Ho Youm, "The Radio and TV Martí Controversy: A Re-examination," Gazette 48 (September 1991): 2; Michael B. Salwen and Bruce Garrison, "Press Freedom and Development: U.S. and Latin American Views," Journalism Quarterly 66 (spring 1989): 87.
32. Kyu Ho Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," Gazette 46 (September 1990): 121.
33. A colegio in Latin America is typically a peer-regulating organization for professionals, which is authorized by law to set education and admissions standards to the profession and to regulate the practice of the profession, much as a state bar association does for the legal profession in the United States. Colegios for journalists, which have sometimes been described as licensing of journalists, especially by North American scholars, raise significant free-expression questions, especially in those countries in which the colegio law requires journalists to have a college degree in communications before being eligible for membership and requires membership in the colegio as a condition of employability for all journalists.
34. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
35. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
36. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
37. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
38. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
39. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
40. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
41. Mary A. Gardner, "Trend Toward Colegiación of Journalists in Latin America and Its Impact on Freedom of the Press," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 6 (1987): 235; Mary A. Gardner, "Colegiación: Another Way to Control the Press?" in Media in Latin American and the Caribbean: Domestic and International Perspectives, ed. Walter C. Soderlund and Stuart H. Surlin (Ontario: Ontario Cooperative Program in Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 1985), 76; Jerry W. Knudson, "Licensing Journalists in Latin America: An Appraisal," Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 878; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 113-21; Michael Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists: The Case of Costa Rica," Communication Law and Policy 4 (winter 1999): 59-86; David A. Cifrino, "Press Freedom in Latin American and the Emerging International Right to Communicate," Boston College Third World Law Journal 9 (winter 1989): 117-42; Leonard R. Sussman, "The Mandatory Licensing of Journalists: The Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," Journal of Media Law and Practice 7 (October 1986): 82; Leslie R. Strauss, "Press Licensing Violates Freedom of Expression," University of Cincinnati Law Review 55 (1987): 891.
42. Viviana Krsticevic, José Miguel Vivanco, Juan E. Méndez, and Drew Porter, "The Inter-American System of Human Rights Protection: Freedom of Expression, 'National Security Doctrines,' and the Transition to Elected Governments," in Secrecy and Liberty: National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, ed. Sandra Coliver, Paul Huffman, Joan Fitzpatrick, and Stephen Bowen (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1999), 161-85.
43. American Convention on Human Rights, approved 22 November 1969, art. 1.1, O.A.S.T.S. 36, International Legal Materials 9 (July 1970): 673 [hereinafter American Convention]. The United States has signed but not ratified the American Convention; Canada has not signed or ratified it.
44. American Convention, art. 13. Paragraphs 4 and 5 of article 13 recognize exemptions for public morals and advocacy of war or racial or religious hatred.
45. American Convention, arts. 34-41.
46. American Convention, art. 46.
47. American Convention, arts. 42, 43, 50, 51.
48. American Convention, arts. 52-73.
49. American Convention, arts. 52-53.
50. American Convention, arts. 62, 68. Article 68 provides: "The states-parties to the Convention undertake to comply with the judgment of the Court in any case to which they are parties."
51. American Convention, art. 63.
52. American Convention, art. 65.
53. Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 27), 12 (1996) [Hereinafter, Blake Case (1996)].
54. Blake Case (1996), 13.
55. Blake Case (1996), 46(1).
56. Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 36), 53 (1998). [Hereinafter, Blake Case (1998)].
57. Blake Case (1998), 67.
58. Blake Case (1998), 65.
59. American Convention, art. 8.1 provides: "Every person has the right to a hearing, with due guarantees and within a reasonable time, by a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal, previously established by law, in the substantiation of any accusation of a criminal nature made against him or for the determination of his rights and obligations of a civil, labor, fiscal, or any other nature."
60. Blake Case (1998), 87-97.
61. American Convention, art. 5.1 provides: "Every person has the right to have his physical, mental, and moral integrity respected."
62. Blake Case (1998), 109-116.
63. See, for example, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 4) 1988 [Velásquez Rodriguez case], Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 5) 1989 [Godinez Cruz case] and Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 34) 1997 [Castillo Paez case].
64. Blake Case (1998), 124(1-4).
65. Report No. 5/99 Inter-Am. C.H.R. Case 11.739 (Mexico), OEA/ ser.I./R. (1999) [Hereinafter, Miranda Case].
66. Miranda Case, 2-3.
67. Miranda Case, 21.
68. Miranda Case, 52.
69. Miranda Case, 56.
70. Report No. 38/97 Inter-Am. C.H.R., Case 10.548 (Peru), OEA/ ser.I./R. (1999) [Hereinafter, Bustíos Case].
71. Bustíos Case, 15, 32, and 36.
72. Bustíos Case, 76.
73. Bustíos Case, 73.
74. Bustíos Case, 75.
75. Scott Davidson, The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, (Brookfield, VT: Gower Publishing Co., 1992), 150.
76. American Convention, art. 44.
77. This is the foundational principle of human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch as well as groups supporting journalists in the face of violence, such as Committee to Protect Journalists and the Inter-American Press Association, among others.
78. American Convention, art. 29, "Restrictions Regarding Interpretation," provides: "No provision of this Convention shall be interpreted as: ... d. excluding or limiting the effect that the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and other international acts of the same nature may have."
79. Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearances of Persons, 9 June 1994, International Legal Materials 33 (November 1994): 1529.
80. Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearances, I.L.M. 33 (November 1994): 1618; The countries are: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
81. The delicacy with which the Commission and Court must work is well illustrated by the attempt of Peru to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court in July 1999, IACHR, "Observations of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Concerning the Return of the Application in the Case of the Constitutional Court v. Peru (11.760), and the Jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights," http://www.cidh.oas.org/Otros/ConstitutionalCourt.htm, which was motivated at least partly out of fear for how the Court would handle the press-freedom case of Baruch Ivcher Bronstein, a TV station owner stripped of his Peruvian citizenship for his station's criticisms of the former Fujimori administration, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C, No. 54) (1996).
82. Davidson, The Inter-American Court, 129.
83. Compulsory membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R., OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985. (Ser. A, No. 5) (Hereinafter, Schmidt Case).
84. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Law of England, vol. 4 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 151-52.
85. Report No. 11/96 Inter-Am. C.H.R., Case 11.230 (Chile), OEA/ser. I./R (1996) (Martorell Case).
86. Report No. 2/96 Inter-Am. C.H.R., Case 10.325 (Grenada), OEA/ ser. I./R (1996) (Pathfinder Press Case).
87. Report No. 22/94 Inter-Am. C.H.R., Case 11.012 (Argentina), OEA/ser. I./R (1994) (Verbitsky Case).
88. Inter-Am. C.H.R., "Report on the Compatibility of 'Desacato' Laws with the American Convention on Human Rights" OEA/Ser.L/V/ II.88 (1994).
89. See for example, Rolv Ryssdal, The Case-law of the European Court of Human Rights on the Freedom of Expression Guaranteed under the European Convention on Human Rights (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1996).
90. Recommendation No. R (96) 4 on the Protection of Journalists in Situations of Conflict and Tension, Council of Europe Committee of Ministers (1996).
91. Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists," 79-83.
92. Krsticevic et al., "The Inter-American System of Human Rights Protection," 163; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 121.
93. Krsticevic et al., "The Inter-American System of Human Rights Protection," 163; Youm, "Licensing of Journalists under International Law," 121.
94. Ruth Walden, Insult Laws: An Insult to Press Freedom (Reston, VA: World Press Freedom Committee, 2000), 153-58, 179.
95. Perkins, "International Human Rights and the Collegiation of Journalists," 84.
96. Inter American Press Association, Freedom of the Press and the Law: Laws that Affect Journalism in the Americas (Miami: IAPA, 1999).