From field to fantasy: Classifying nature, constructing Europe

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 177-204

  Waterton, Claire ^a  

^a LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Classification; CORINE Biotopes; Ethnography; Habitats; NVC; Policy

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038385937     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0306312702032002001     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. David Allardyce Webb, 'Is the Classification of Plant Communities Either Possible or Desirable?', Botanisk Tidsskrift, Vol. 51 (1954), 362-70, quote at 362.
2. Helga Nowotny, Peter Scott and Michael Gibbons, Re-Thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2001).
3. Edgar Barton Worthington, The Ecological Century: A Personal Appraisal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983).
4. Geoffrey C. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 5 (October 2000) 643-83, 644. See also G.G. Bowker, 'Mapping Biodiversity', International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Vol. 14, No. 8 (2000), 739-54.
5. Geoffrey C. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 5 (October 2000) 643-83, 644. See also G.G. Bowker, 'Mapping Biodiversity', International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Vol. 14, No. 8 (2000), 739-54.
6. Thomas Richards, The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire (London: Verso, 1993), 73.
7. Ibid., 44.
8. Ibid., 73.
9. The project 'Databases and European Environmental Policy' was part of a suite of projects funded by the UK ESRC under the umbrella programme 'Science, Culture and the Environment - Phase 2' (Award Ref. 320253188), carried out by researchers in the Centre for the Study of Environmental Change, Lancaster University, UK, during 1994-97.
10. CORINE is the name of a European information-gathering programme on the environment. The European acronym stands for 'Co-ORdination of Information on the Environment'. CORINE Biotopes is the part of this information programme that deals with natural habitats and species. It consists of both a new European classification of European Biotopes (or 'habitats') and a data-gathering programme about existing protection of natural and semi-natural habitats in Europe. It was carried out during the period 1985-90 by a group of European experts working within the European Commission. The main texts describing a) the classification and b) the data-gathering programme are, correspondingly: a) Commission of the European Communities (1990a), 'CORINE Biotopes Manual: Habitats of the European Community' (EUR 12587/3); and b) Commission of the European Communities (1990b), 'CORINE Biotopes: The Design Compilation and Use of an Inventory of Sites of Major Importance for Nature Conservation in the European Community' (EUR 113231).
11. George E. Marcus, 'Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of a Multi-Sited Ethnography', Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 24 (1995), 95-117.
12. James A. Secord, Controversy in Victorian Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); John Dean, 'Controversy Over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany', in Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture (London: Sage, 1979), 211-30; Harriet Ritvo, The Platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997).
13. James A. Secord, Controversy in Victorian Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); John Dean, 'Controversy Over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany', in Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture (London: Sage, 1979), 211-30; Harriet Ritvo, The Platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997).
14. James A. Secord, Controversy in Victorian Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); John Dean, 'Controversy Over Classification: A Case Study from the History of Botany', in Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture (London: Sage, 1979), 211-30; Harriet Ritvo, The Platypus and the Mermaid, and Other Figments of the Classifying Imagination (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997).
15. Secord, op. cit. note 11, 6.
16. Charles Goodwin, 'Professional Vision", American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3 (September 1994), 606-33, at 609.
17. Michael Lynch, 'Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 1 (February 1985), 37-66; M. Lynch, 'The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences', in Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 153-86.
18. Michael Lynch, 'Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 15, No. 1 (February 1985), 37-66; M. Lynch, 'The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences', in Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (eds), Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 153-86.
19. Michael Lynch, Scientific Practice and Ordinary Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 14, quoting Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), vii.
20. Michael Lynch, Scientific Practice and Ordinary Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 14, quoting Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), vii.
21. Lynch, op. cit. note 15, 15.
22. The process of re-opening closed facts is dealt with in much detail in the second half of Goodwin's paper (op. cit. note 13), and in Secord's portrayal of controversy in the science of geology (op. cit. note 11).
23. The process of re-opening closed facts is dealt with in much detail in the second half of Goodwin's paper (op. cit. note 13), and in Secord's portrayal of controversy in the science of geology (op. cit. note 11).
24. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
25. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
26. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
27. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
28. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
29. For example: Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, trans. from the French by Rodney Needham, Primitive Classification (London: Cohen & West, 2nd edn, 1970), originally published (in 1903) as 'De Quelques Formes Primitives de Classification: Contribution à l'Étude des Représentations Collectives', l'Année Sociologique, Vol. 6 (1901-1902), 1-72; Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800 (London: Penguin, 1984); Malcolm Nicolson, 'National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A Comparative Case Study from the History of French and American Plant Ecology', Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, Vol. 8 (1989), 139-86; Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1992), originally published in French as Les Mots et les Choses (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1966); Secord, op. cit. note 11; Ritvo, op. cit. note 11.
30. This will often depend on the way that 'users' operate and what they 'make' of representations of nature and society such as classifications: see Michel De Certeau, trans. Steven Randall, The Practice of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), esp. xi-29. For a similar point but focussing specifically on classifications themselves, see Richards, op. cit. note 5, esp. Chapters 3 & 4, 73-152.
31. This will often depend on the way that 'users' operate and what they 'make' of representations of nature and society such as classifications: see Michel De Certeau, trans. Steven Randall, The Practice of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), esp. xi-29. For a similar point but focussing specifically on classifications themselves, see Richards, op. cit. note 5, esp. Chapters 3 & 4, 73-152.
32. Commission of the European Communities, 'Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora', Official Journal of the European Communities, L206/7 (22 July 1992).
33. Claire Waterton and Brian Wynne, 'Building the European Union: Science and the Cultural Dimensions of Environmental Policy', Journal of European Public Policy, Vol, 3 (1996), 421-40.
34. The CORINE information-gathering programme included many different environmental information programmes within it, for example CORINAIR (on air quality), CORINE Eau (on water quality), CORINE Land Cover, and so on.
35. Commission of the EC (1990b), op. cit. note 9, 14.
36. Ibid., 25.
37. See note 18.
38. Ritvo op. cit. note 11, 61.
39. Debates on sovereignty and governance centre around two dominant approaches to European integration: the 'neo-functionalist' approach, and the 'neo-realist' approach. A useful survey of these and related approaches can be found in A. Weak, G. Pridham, M. Cini, D. Konstadakopulos, M. Porter and B. Flynn, Environmental Governance in Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
40. For example, Martin Kettle, 'A Continent With an Identity Crisis', in Geoffrey Andrews (ed.), Citizenship (London: Laurence & Wishart, 1991), 115-22.
41. Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan Press, 1995); Etienne Balibar and Immanuel M. Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities (London: Verso, 1991).
42. Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan Press, 1995); Etienne Balibar and Immanuel M. Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities (London: Verso, 1991).
43. Richards, op. cit. note 5, 73.
44. As seen, for example, in the work of Brian Wynne and Simon Shackley: B. Wynne, 'SSK's Identity Parade: Signing-Up, Off-and-On', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 2 (May 1996), 357-91; S. Shackley and B. Wynne, 'Integrating Knowledges for Climate Change: Pyramids, Nets and Uncertainties', Global Environmental Change, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1995), 113-26.
45. As seen, for example, in the work of Brian Wynne and Simon Shackley: B. Wynne, 'SSK's Identity Parade: Signing-Up, Off-and-On', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 26, No. 2 (May 1996), 357-91; S. Shackley and B. Wynne, 'Integrating Knowledges for Climate Change: Pyramids, Nets and Uncertainties', Global Environmental Change, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1995), 113-26.
46. For example, Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructive and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). For emphasis on closure with respect to outdoor fieldwork, see note 36 below.
47. For example, Karin Knorr Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructive and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981); Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). For emphasis on closure with respect to outdoor fieldwork, see note 36 below.
48. Bruno Latour, "The "Pédofil" of Boa Vista: A Photo-Philosophical Montage', trans. Bart Simon and Katia Verresen, Common Knowledge, Vol. 4 (1995), 144-87. This article has been republished as Chapter 2, 'Circulating Reference: Sampling the Soil in the Amazon Forest', in Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 24-79.
49. Bruno Latour, "The "Pédofil" of Boa Vista: A Photo-Philosophical Montage', trans. Bart Simon and Katia Verresen, Common Knowledge, Vol. 4 (1995), 144-87. This article has been republished as Chapter 2, 'Circulating Reference: Sampling the Soil in the Amazon Forest', in Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 24-79.
50. Latour, ' "Pédofil" of Boa Vista', op. cit. note 33, 147.
51. Ibid., 148.
52. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
53. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
54. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
55. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
56. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
57. Ibid.; Wolff-Michael Roth and G. Michael Bowen, 'Digitizing Lizards: The Topology of "Vision" in Ecological Fieldwork', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 29, No. 5 (October 1999), 719-64; Michael Lynch, 'Method: Measurement - Ordinary and Scientific Measurement as Ethnographical Phenomena', in Graham Button (ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 77-108; Lynch (1990), op. cit. note 14; John Law and John Whittaker, 'On the Art of Representation: Notes on the Politics of Visualisation', in Gordon Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations (London: Routledge, 1988), 160-83; J. Law and M. Lynch, 'Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity', in Lynch & Woolgar (eds), op. cit. note 14, 267-99.
58. Goodwin, op. cit. note 13.
59. Roth & Bowen, op. cit. note 36.
60. Secord, op. cit. note 11.
61. A quadrat (not quadrant as one might suppose) is an essential tool of the phytosociologist (or student of plant communities). It is simply a predefined square area (usually two metres square for grassland), measured out in the field with string, or poles.
62. Latour (1995), op. cit. note 33, 170.
63. See Martin Kent and Paddy Coker, Vegetation Description and Analyses: A Practical Approach (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1992), 45.
64. Latour (1987), op. cit. note 32, 64.
65. Latour (1995), op. cit. note 33, 180.
66. I b i d.
67. Texts in double quotation marks are from notes taken by hand in the field. The quotation in this sentence is from Professor John S. Rodwell, head of the Unit of Vegetation Science at Lancaster University, and the editor of British Plant Communities, 5 Volumes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991-2000). John Rodwell was one of two tutors on the field course. Other quotations elsewhere in this paper are from Elizabeth Cooper, a vegetation scientist who worked in the same Unit and part-taught the field course with John Rodwell.
68. This task was left to each student group of 3 or 4 students. We were asked to look at the vegetation from a rocky crag, which was slightly elevated above the grassy field where the exercise was to take place. Once my own group had identified and agreed upon a homogeneous-looking patch from this crag, we descended the small hillock into the field and, after a little discussion and to-ing and fro-ing with bits of string, we established a boundary around our selected patch. The identification of species within our patch was aided by a species list given out as part of a course pack. Some of the students, including myself, had field guides - for example, Charles E. Hubbard, Grasses: A Guide to their Structure, Identification, Uses and Distribution in the British Isles (London: Penguin, 1954); or Francis D. Rose, The Wild Flower Key; A Guide to Plant Identification in the Field, With and Without Flowers [British Isles - NW Europe] (London: Frederick Warne, 1981). As all the groups started on the identification of species within their own quadrats, the two supervisors toured around the groups helping with problems and queries. The students themselves were a mixture of ecology students and professional conservationists acquiring new skills, and so identification skills varied at the beginning of the course: students helped each other recognize unfamiliar species.
69. This task was left to each student group of 3 or 4 students. We were asked to look at the vegetation from a rocky crag, which was slightly elevated above the grassy field where the exercise was to take place. Once my own group had identified and agreed upon a homogeneous-looking patch from this crag, we descended the small hillock into the field and, after a little discussion and to-ing and fro-ing with bits of string, we established a boundary around our selected patch. The identification of species within our patch was aided by a species list given out as part of a course pack. Some of the students, including myself, had field guides - for example, Charles E. Hubbard, Grasses: A Guide to their Structure, Identification, Uses and Distribution in the British Isles (London: Penguin, 1954); or Francis D. Rose, The Wild Flower Key; A Guide to Plant Identification in the Field, With and Without Flowers [British Isles - NW Europe] (London: Frederick Warne, 1981). As all the groups started on the identification of species within their own quadrats, the two supervisors toured around the groups helping with problems and queries. The students themselves were a mixture of ecology students and professional conservationists acquiring new skills, and so identification skills varied at the beginning of the course: students helped each other recognize unfamiliar species.
70. Henry Allan Gleason, 'The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association', Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 43 (1926), 463-81; H.A. Gleason, 'The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association', American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 21 (1939), 92-110.
71. Henry Allan Gleason, 'The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association', Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 43 (1926), 463-81; H.A. Gleason, 'The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association', American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 21 (1939), 92-110.
72. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', op. cit. note 4, 653.
73. Quotes written down as field notes on the course 'Using the National Vegetation Classification: An Introduction to Principles and Applications', Unit of Vegetation Science, Lancaster University (22-26 April 1996).
74. Quote from Elizabeth Cooper: field notes, ibid.
75. On a similar point, Roth & Bowen, op. cit. note 36, 723, observed how measurement is not a coherent practice even for the same scientist across different situations, and how each of the scientists locally elaborated and enacted for him/herself the meaning of different cultural referents in different settings.
76. See Rodwell (ed.), op. cit. note 46, Volume 3: Grasslands and Montane Communities (1992), 352-67.
77. Examples go back to Thomas Kuhn - for example, Kuhn's example of the forming of a cadre of electricians in the late 18th century: T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1970), 21-22.
78. Goodwin, op. cit. note 13.
79. Roth & Bowen, op. cit. note 36.
80. Webb, op. cit. note 1; R.H.L. Disney, "The Relentless Decline of Taxonomy', Science and Public Affairs (October 2000), 6; M.R. Wilson, 'Loss of Taxonomists is a Threat to Pest Control' (Letter), Nature, Vol. 407 (5 October 2000), 559; Quentin D. Wheeler and Joel Cracraft, 'Taxonomic Preparedness: Are We Ready to Meet the Biodiversity Challenge?', in Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson and Edward O. Wilson (eds), Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources (Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1997), 435-46.
81. Webb, op. cit. note 1; R.H.L. Disney, "The Relentless Decline of Taxonomy', Science and Public Affairs (October 2000), 6; M.R. Wilson, 'Loss of Taxonomists is a Threat to Pest Control' (Letter), Nature, Vol. 407 (5 October 2000), 559; Quentin D. Wheeler and Joel Cracraft, 'Taxonomic Preparedness: Are We Ready to Meet the Biodiversity Challenge?', in Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson and Edward O. Wilson (eds), Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources (Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1997), 435-46.
82. Webb, op. cit. note 1; R.H.L. Disney, "The Relentless Decline of Taxonomy', Science and Public Affairs (October 2000), 6; M.R. Wilson, 'Loss of Taxonomists is a Threat to Pest Control' (Letter), Nature, Vol. 407 (5 October 2000), 559; Quentin D. Wheeler and Joel Cracraft, 'Taxonomic Preparedness: Are We Ready to Meet the Biodiversity Challenge?', in Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson and Edward O. Wilson (eds), Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources (Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1997), 435-46.
83. Webb, op. cit. note 1; R.H.L. Disney, "The Relentless Decline of Taxonomy', Science and Public Affairs (October 2000), 6; M.R. Wilson, 'Loss of Taxonomists is a Threat to Pest Control' (Letter), Nature, Vol. 407 (5 October 2000), 559; Quentin D. Wheeler and Joel Cracraft, 'Taxonomic Preparedness: Are We Ready to Meet the Biodiversity Challenge?', in Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson and Edward O. Wilson (eds), Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources (Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1997), 435-46.
84. For example, work theorizing the 'Mode-2' production of knowledge: Nowotny, Scott & Gibbons, op. cit. note 2; and studies theorizing new relationships between industry, universities and government, using the 'triple-helix' model: Henry Etzkowitz and Loet Leydesdorff, 'The Dynamics of Innovation: From National Systems and Mode 2 to a Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations', Research Policy, Vol. 29 (2000), 109-23.
85. See, for example, the alternative approaches to characterizing British woodlands in: Oliver Rackham, Ancient Woodland: Its History, Vegetation and Uses in England (London: Edward Arnold, 1980); or George F. Peterken, Woodland Conservation and Management (London: Chapman & Hall, 1981); or contrasting conceptualizations of how vegetation is organized in space through the very different concepts of vegetation associated with 'gradient analysis', first propounded by Gleason, op. cit. note 48.
86. See, for example, the alternative approaches to characterizing British woodlands in: Oliver Rackham, Ancient Woodland: Its History, Vegetation and Uses in England (London: Edward Arnold, 1980); or George F. Peterken, Woodland Conservation and Management (London: Chapman & Hall, 1981); or contrasting conceptualizations of how vegetation is organized in space through the very different concepts of vegetation associated with 'gradient analysis', first propounded by Gleason, op. cit. note 48.
87. See, for example, the alternative approaches to characterizing British woodlands in: Oliver Rackham, Ancient Woodland: Its History, Vegetation and Uses in England (London: Edward Arnold, 1980); or George F. Peterken, Woodland Conservation and Management (London: Chapman & Hall, 1981); or contrasting conceptualizations of how vegetation is organized in space through the very different concepts of vegetation associated with 'gradient analysis', first propounded by Gleason, op. cit. note 48.
88. Robert J. O'Hara, 'Telling the Tree: Narrative Representation and the Study of Evolutionary History', Biology and Philosophy, Vol. 7 (1992), 135-60, at 153.
89. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', op. cit. note 4, 659.
90. Secord, op. cit. note 11, 69.
91. This is a reference to the 'chain' metaphor that Latour uses in Latour (1999), op. cit. note 33, esp. 180-87.
92. These 'vulnerable classes' were represented in Annex 1 of the Habitats and Species Directive as 'Natural Habitat Types of Community Interest Whose Conservation Requires the Designation of [a] Special Areas of Conservation'.
93. As the House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts Report illustrates, the effort and change that were anticipated to be necessary to implement the Habitats and Species Directive were a subject of some consternation among various politicians and policy makers: see 'Protecting and Managing Sites of Special Scientific Interest in England' (HMSO, 5 April 1995). As one member of the Commons Committee, Mr Tracey, put it (ibid., paras 43, 44 & 45): In paragraphs 3.40 and 3.41 there is talk of new European legislation on conservation. What is this going to mean in terms of the operation in this country? Is it going to mean a whole new tier, a whole new layer of bureaucracy in this regard? The answer given again illustrates some of these anxieties: Certainly it should not. But Mr Tracey was not reassured and continued to question: Are we saying then that European obligations are higher than our own national obligations or is it just that there are some sites in this country, as indeed in the rest of Europe, that are of international importance? And a further question: Is this going to place a whole new dimension of problems, certainly in the minds of some people, in preserving these sites?
94. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
95. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
96. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
97. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
98. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
99. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
100. Thomas, op. cit. note 18, 61. Thomas adds an endnote to this quotation which indicates his sense of its complexity; it reads as follows (verbatim): Cf. Claude Levi-Strauss, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham (Harmondsworth, 1969); Rodney Needham, Primordial Characters (Charlottesville, VA, 1878), 4-5, 39; Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, 'Where is the Edge of Objectivity?', Brit. Jnl. for the Hist, of Sci., x (1977); Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974), 18; Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings (1975), 285; Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (1977), 101.
101. See, for example, Londa Schiebinger on implicit gender structuring in Linnean classifications: L. Schiebinger, 'Gender and Natural History', in Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord and E.G. Spary (eds), Cultures of Natural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 163-77. Many other examples can be found in the work listed in note 18.
102. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', op. cit. note 4, 675.
103. Ibid., 676.
104. The work of Michel de Certeau, op. cit. note 19, is helpful here, if we can think of European policies and the kind of classification they contain as a form of 'disciplining'. With reference to Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. by Alan Sheridan (London: Penguin, 1979), de Certeau (op. cit., xiv) suggests a need for a shift in focus - from the dominating orders to the tactics of those supposed to be dominated: If it is true that the grid of 'discipline' is everywhere becoming clearer and more extensive, it is all the more urgent to see how an entire society resists being reduced to it. What popular procedures (also 'miniscule' and quotidian) manipulate the mechanisms of discipline and conform to them only in order to evade them, and finally, what 'ways of operating' form the counterpart, on the consumer's (or 'dominee's' ?) side, of the mute processes that organise the establishment of socioeconomic order?
105. The work of Michel de Certeau, op. cit. note 19, is helpful here, if we can think of European policies and the kind of classification they contain as a form of 'disciplining'. With reference to Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. by Alan Sheridan (London: Penguin, 1979), de Certeau (op. cit., xiv) suggests a need for a shift in focus - from the dominating orders to the tactics of those supposed to be dominated: If it is true that the grid of 'discipline' is everywhere becoming clearer and more extensive, it is all the more urgent to see how an entire society resists being reduced to it. What popular procedures (also 'miniscule' and quotidian) manipulate the mechanisms of discipline and conform to them only in order to evade them, and finally, what 'ways of operating' form the counterpart, on the consumer's (or 'dominee's' ?) side, of the mute processes that organise the establishment of socioeconomic order?
106. CORINE Biotopes Manual (CEC 2000a DGXI-EEA-TF, EUR12587/3).
107. See note 64.
108. Commission of the EC Directive, op. cit. note 20.
109. Interview with British ecologist (Lancaster University, 14 September 1996).
110. I b i d.
111. Interview with British conservationist (Windermere, 25 August 1995).
112. I b i d.
113. The concerns expressed here tally very well with those expressed by the Commons Committee in note 65. Further examples of this specific point can be found in Neil Ward, Henry Buller and Philip D. Lowe, 'The Europeanisation of Local Environmental Politics: Bathing Water Pollution in the South-West of England", Local Environment, Vol. 1 (1996), 21-32. A previous article relating to the CORINE Biotopes classification also made this point: see Waterton & Wynne, op. cit. note 21. There is a vast literature on European regulation, policy-making and implementation. Again, a very useful overview of this field can be found in Weale et al., op. cit. note 27.
114. The concerns expressed here tally very well with those expressed by the Commons Committee in note 65. Further examples of this specific point can be found in Neil Ward, Henry Buller and Philip D. Lowe, 'The Europeanisation of Local Environmental Politics: Bathing Water Pollution in the South-West of England", Local Environment, Vol. 1 (1996), 21-32. A previous article relating to the CORINE Biotopes classification also made this point: see Waterton & Wynne, op. cit. note 21. There is a vast literature on European regulation, policy-making and implementation. Again, a very useful overview of this field can be found in Weale et al., op. cit. note 27.
115. The concerns expressed here tally very well with those expressed by the Commons Committee in note 65. Further examples of this specific point can be found in Neil Ward, Henry Buller and Philip D. Lowe, 'The Europeanisation of Local Environmental Politics: Bathing Water Pollution in the South-West of England", Local Environment, Vol. 1 (1996), 21-32. A previous article relating to the CORINE Biotopes classification also made this point: see Waterton & Wynne, op. cit. note 21. There is a vast literature on European regulation, policy-making and implementation. Again, a very useful overview of this field can be found in Weale et al., op. cit. note 27.
116. De Certeau, op. cit. note 19, xvi. De Certeau talks about contemporary 'consumers' as producers of these practices. What is very interesting is the way that he describes how consumers use the vocabularies and idioms of established languages whilst at the same time appropriating them in a kind of poetic way, and in a way which fulfils their own particular needs: As unrecognised producers, poets of their own acts, silent discoverers of their own paths in the jungle of functionalist rationality, consumers produce through their signifying practices something that might be considered similar to the 'wandering lines' ('lignes d'erre") drawn by the autistic children studied by F. Deligny: 'indirect' or 'errant' trajectories obeying their own logic. In the technocratically constructed, written, and functionalised space in which consumers move about, their trajectories form unseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space. Although they are composed with the vocabularies of established languages (those of television, newspapers, supermarkets or museum sequences) and although they remain subordinated to the prescribed syntactical forms (temporal modes of schedules, paradigmatic orders of spaces, etc.), the trajectories trace out the ruses of other interests and desires that are neither determined nor captured by the systems in which they develop. (Ibid., xvi). See Fernand Deligny, Les Vagabondes Efficaces (Paris: Maspero, 1970). See also M. de Certeau, La Culture au Pluriel (Paris: UGE 10/18, 1974), 283-308; and M. de Certeau, 'Actions culturelles et stratégies politiques', La Revue Nouvelle (April 1974), 351-60.
117. De Certeau, op. cit. note 19, xvi. De Certeau talks about contemporary 'consumers' as producers of these practices. What is very interesting is the way that he describes how consumers use the vocabularies and idioms of established languages whilst at the same time appropriating them in a kind of poetic way, and in a way which fulfils their own particular needs: As unrecognised producers, poets of their own acts, silent discoverers of their own paths in the jungle of functionalist rationality, consumers produce through their signifying practices something that might be considered similar to the 'wandering lines' ('lignes d'erre") drawn by the autistic children studied by F. Deligny: 'indirect' or 'errant' trajectories obeying their own logic. In the technocratically constructed, written, and functionalised space in which consumers move about, their trajectories form unseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space. Although they are composed with the vocabularies of established languages (those of television, newspapers, supermarkets or museum sequences) and although they remain subordinated to the prescribed syntactical forms (temporal modes of schedules, paradigmatic orders of spaces, etc.), the trajectories trace out the ruses of other interests and desires that are neither determined nor captured by the systems in which they develop. (Ibid., xvi). See Fernand Deligny, Les Vagabondes Efficaces (Paris: Maspero, 1970). See also M. de Certeau, La Culture au Pluriel (Paris: UGE 10/18, 1974), 283-308; and M. de Certeau, 'Actions culturelles et stratégies politiques', La Revue Nouvelle (April 1974), 351-60.
118. De Certeau, op. cit. note 19, xvi. De Certeau talks about contemporary 'consumers' as producers of these practices. What is very interesting is the way that he describes how consumers use the vocabularies and idioms of established languages whilst at the same time appropriating them in a kind of poetic way, and in a way which fulfils their own particular needs: As unrecognised producers, poets of their own acts, silent discoverers of their own paths in the jungle of functionalist rationality, consumers produce through their signifying practices something that might be considered similar to the 'wandering lines' ('lignes d'erre") drawn by the autistic children studied by F. Deligny: 'indirect' or 'errant' trajectories obeying their own logic. In the technocratically constructed, written, and functionalised space in which consumers move about, their trajectories form unseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space. Although they are composed with the vocabularies of established languages (those of television, newspapers, supermarkets or museum sequences) and although they remain subordinated to the prescribed syntactical forms (temporal modes of schedules, paradigmatic orders of spaces, etc.), the trajectories trace out the ruses of other interests and desires that are neither determined nor captured by the systems in which they develop. (Ibid., xvi). See Fernand Deligny, Les Vagabondes Efficaces (Paris: Maspero, 1970). See also M. de Certeau, La Culture au Pluriel (Paris: UGE 10/18, 1974), 283-308; and M. de Certeau, 'Actions culturelles et stratégies politiques', La Revue Nouvelle (April 1974), 351-60.
119. De Certeau, op. cit. note 19, xvi. De Certeau talks about contemporary 'consumers' as producers of these practices. What is very interesting is the way that he describes how consumers use the vocabularies and idioms of established languages whilst at the same time appropriating them in a kind of poetic way, and in a way which fulfils their own particular needs: As unrecognised producers, poets of their own acts, silent discoverers of their own paths in the jungle of functionalist rationality, consumers produce through their signifying practices something that might be considered similar to the 'wandering lines' ('lignes d'erre") drawn by the autistic children studied by F. Deligny: 'indirect' or 'errant' trajectories obeying their own logic. In the technocratically constructed, written, and functionalised space in which consumers move about, their trajectories form unseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space. Although they are composed with the vocabularies of established languages (those of television, newspapers, supermarkets or museum sequences) and although they remain subordinated to the prescribed syntactical forms (temporal modes of schedules, paradigmatic orders of spaces, etc.), the trajectories trace out the ruses of other interests and desires that are neither determined nor captured by the systems in which they develop. (Ibid., xvi). See Fernand Deligny, Les Vagabondes Efficaces (Paris: Maspero, 1970). See also M. de Certeau, La Culture au Pluriel (Paris: UGE 10/18, 1974), 283-308; and M. de Certeau, 'Actions culturelles et stratégies politiques', La Revue Nouvelle (April 1974), 351-60.
120. De Certeau, op. cit. note 19, xvi. De Certeau talks about contemporary 'consumers' as producers of these practices. What is very interesting is the way that he describes how consumers use the vocabularies and idioms of established languages whilst at the same time appropriating them in a kind of poetic way, and in a way which fulfils their own particular needs: As unrecognised producers, poets of their own acts, silent discoverers of their own paths in the jungle of functionalist rationality, consumers produce through their signifying practices something that might be considered similar to the 'wandering lines' ('lignes d'erre") drawn by the autistic children studied by F. Deligny: 'indirect' or 'errant' trajectories obeying their own logic. In the technocratically constructed, written, and functionalised space in which consumers move about, their trajectories form unseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space. Although they are composed with the vocabularies of established languages (those of television, newspapers, supermarkets or museum sequences) and although they remain subordinated to the prescribed syntactical forms (temporal modes of schedules, paradigmatic orders of spaces, etc.), the trajectories trace out the ruses of other interests and desires that are neither determined nor captured by the systems in which they develop. (Ibid., xvi). See Fernand Deligny, Les Vagabondes Efficaces (Paris: Maspero, 1970). See also M. de Certeau, La Culture au Pluriel (Paris: UGE 10/18, 1974), 283-308; and M. de Certeau, 'Actions culturelles et stratégies politiques', La Revue Nouvelle (April 1974), 351-60.
121. As Elizabeth Cooper and Jane MacKintosh put it: '[S]pecies-rich' kinds of this [Nardus] grassland are typical of the Monts du Forez, in the north-east part of the Massif Central... . [they] are quite different in character and species composition to the Festuca-Agrostis-Thymus grassland (CG10 NVC Community) put forward as the JNCC interpretation of 35.1. E.A. Cooper and J. MacKintosh, Review of Scottish Grassland Surveys using the National Vegetation Classification (Edinburgh: Scottish Natural Heritage, 1996), 67.
122. The 'tinkering' metaphor has been used as a description of the way that scientists work in the laboratory. Scientists 'tinker' to achieve desired ends in their work and results. See, for example, Karin Knorr, Tinkering Towards Success', Theory and Society, Vol. 8 (1979), 347-76; Michael Zenzen and Sal Restivo, 'The Mysterious Morphology of Immiscible Liquids: A Study of Scientific Practice', Social Science Information, Vol. 21 (1982), 447-73.
123. The 'tinkering' metaphor has been used as a description of the way that scientists work in the laboratory. Scientists 'tinker' to achieve desired ends in their work and results. See, for example, Karin Knorr, Tinkering Towards Success', Theory and Society, Vol. 8 (1979), 347-76; Michael Zenzen and Sal Restivo, 'The Mysterious Morphology of Immiscible Liquids: A Study of Scientific Practice', Social Science Information, Vol. 21 (1982), 447-73.
124. Bowker, 'Biodiversity Datadiversity', op. cit. note 4, 661.
125. One more step on the way to European integration - the Functionalist
126. Richards, op. cit. note 5, esp. Chapter 1.
127. Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994).
128. Waterton & Wynne, op. cit. note 21.
129. Richards, op. cit. note 5, 108.
130. Thomas Pynchon, Gravity's Rainbow (NewYork: Viking Press, 1973).