Audience recall of AIDs PSAs among U.S. and international college students

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 7-22

  Lee, Jung Sook ^a   Davie, William R ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038301357     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400102     Document Type: Article

References (84)

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2. Eleanor Singer, Theresa F. Rogers, and Marc B. Glassman, "Public Opinion About AIDS Before and After the 1988 U.S. Government Public Information Campaign," Public Opinion Quarterly 55 (summer 1991): 161-79; Diana R. Woods, David Davis, and Bonita J. Westover, "America Responds To AIDS: Its Content, Development Process, and Outcome," Public Health Reports 106 (November-December 1991): 616-22.
3. Teri Randall, "Messages Prove 'You Can Do that on Television," Journal of the American Medical Association, 16 May 1990, 2593.
4. Alan J. Bush and Gregory W. Boller, "Rethinking the Role of Television Advertising During Health Crises: A Rhetorical Analysis of the Federal AIDS Campaign," Journal of Advertising 20 (March 1991): 28-37.
5. Woods, Davis, and Westover, "America Responds To AIDS," 621.
6. Ralph W. Hingson, Lee Strunin, Beth M. Berlin, and Timothy Heeren, "Beliefs about AIDS, Use of Alcohol and Drugs, and Unprotected Sex among Massachusetts Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 80 (March 1990): 295-99; Joseph H. Fleck, Freya L. Sonenstein, and Leighton C. Ku, "Adolescent Males' Condom Use: Relationships between Perceived Cost-Benefits and Consistency," Journal of Marriage and the Family 53 (August 1991): 733-45; Joseph A. Catania, Thomas J. Coates, Ron Stall, Heather Turner, John Peterson, Norman Hearst, M. Margaret Dolcini, Estie Hudes, John Gagnon, James Wiley, and Robert Groves, "Prevalence of AIDS-Related Risk Factors and Condom Use in the United States," Science, 13 November 1992, 1101-1106; Wendy Geringer, Suzanne Marks, Winston Allen, and Kay Armstrong, "Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to Condom Use and STDs in a High Risk Population," The Journal of Sex Research 30 (February 1993): 75-83.
7. Ralph W. Hingson, Lee Strunin, Beth M. Berlin, and Timothy Heeren, "Beliefs about AIDS, Use of Alcohol and Drugs, and Unprotected Sex among Massachusetts Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 80 (March 1990): 295-99; Joseph H. Fleck, Freya L. Sonenstein, and Leighton C. Ku, "Adolescent Males' Condom Use: Relationships between Perceived Cost-Benefits and Consistency," Journal of Marriage and the Family 53 (August 1991): 733-45; Joseph A. Catania, Thomas J. Coates, Ron Stall, Heather Turner, John Peterson, Norman Hearst, M. Margaret Dolcini, Estie Hudes, John Gagnon, James Wiley, and Robert Groves, "Prevalence of AIDS-Related Risk Factors and Condom Use in the United States," Science, 13 November 1992, 1101-1106; Wendy Geringer, Suzanne Marks, Winston Allen, and Kay Armstrong, "Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to Condom Use and STDs in a High Risk Population," The Journal of Sex Research 30 (February 1993): 75-83.
8. Ralph W. Hingson, Lee Strunin, Beth M. Berlin, and Timothy Heeren, "Beliefs about AIDS, Use of Alcohol and Drugs, and Unprotected Sex among Massachusetts Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 80 (March 1990): 295-99; Joseph H. Fleck, Freya L. Sonenstein, and Leighton C. Ku, "Adolescent Males' Condom Use: Relationships between Perceived Cost-Benefits and Consistency," Journal of Marriage and the Family 53 (August 1991): 733-45; Joseph A. Catania, Thomas J. Coates, Ron Stall, Heather Turner, John Peterson, Norman Hearst, M. Margaret Dolcini, Estie Hudes, John Gagnon, James Wiley, and Robert Groves, "Prevalence of AIDS-Related Risk Factors and Condom Use in the United States," Science, 13 November 1992, 1101-1106; Wendy Geringer, Suzanne Marks, Winston Allen, and Kay Armstrong, "Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to Condom Use and STDs in a High Risk Population," The Journal of Sex Research 30 (February 1993): 75-83.
9. Ralph W. Hingson, Lee Strunin, Beth M. Berlin, and Timothy Heeren, "Beliefs about AIDS, Use of Alcohol and Drugs, and Unprotected Sex among Massachusetts Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 80 (March 1990): 295-99; Joseph H. Fleck, Freya L. Sonenstein, and Leighton C. Ku, "Adolescent Males' Condom Use: Relationships between Perceived Cost-Benefits and Consistency," Journal of Marriage and the Family 53 (August 1991): 733-45; Joseph A. Catania, Thomas J. Coates, Ron Stall, Heather Turner, John Peterson, Norman Hearst, M. Margaret Dolcini, Estie Hudes, John Gagnon, James Wiley, and Robert Groves, "Prevalence of AIDS-Related Risk Factors and Condom Use in the United States," Science, 13 November 1992, 1101-1106; Wendy Geringer, Suzanne Marks, Winston Allen, and Kay Armstrong, "Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to Condom Use and STDs in a High Risk Population," The Journal of Sex Research 30 (February 1993): 75-83.
10. Richard P. Keeling, "AIDS on the College Campus - Introduction," Journal of American College Health 35 (November 1986): 123-26.
11. Deborah Dawson, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes for May and June 1988, Provisional Data From the National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, no. 160, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 88-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 26 Sept. 1988).
12. Vicki S. Freimuth, Timothy Edgar, and Sharon L. Hammond, "College Students' Awareness and Interpretation of the AIDS Risk," Science, Technology, and Human Values 12 (summer/fall 1987): 37-40; Megan P. Goodwin and Bruce Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge and Attitudes at a Midwestern University," Journal of American College Health 36 (January 1988): 214-22; James Stiff, Mary McCormack, Eric Zook, Terry Stein, and Rebecca Henry, "Learning about AIDS and HIV: Transmission in College-Age Students," Communication Research 17 (December 1990): 571-600.
13. Vicki S. Freimuth, Timothy Edgar, and Sharon L. Hammond, "College Students' Awareness and Interpretation of the AIDS Risk," Science, Technology, and Human Values 12 (summer/fall 1987): 37-40; Megan P. Goodwin and Bruce Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge and Attitudes at a Midwestern University," Journal of American College Health 36 (January 1988): 214-22; James Stiff, Mary McCormack, Eric Zook, Terry Stein, and Rebecca Henry, "Learning about AIDS and HIV: Transmission in College-Age Students," Communication Research 17 (December 1990): 571-600.
14. Vicki S. Freimuth, Timothy Edgar, and Sharon L. Hammond, "College Students' Awareness and Interpretation of the AIDS Risk," Science, Technology, and Human Values 12 (summer/fall 1987): 37-40; Megan P. Goodwin and Bruce Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge and Attitudes at a Midwestern University," Journal of American College Health 36 (January 1988): 214-22; James Stiff, Mary McCormack, Eric Zook, Terry Stein, and Rebecca Henry, "Learning about AIDS and HIV: Transmission in College-Age Students," Communication Research 17 (December 1990): 571-600.
15. Kim Witte, "The Role of Culture in Health and Diseases," in Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 6th ed., ed. Larry A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1991), 199-207.
16. Randall, "Messages Prove," 2588.
17. Patricia G. Devine and Edward R. Hirt, "Message Strategies for Information Campaigns: A Social Psychological Analysis," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 229-58.
18. Vicki S. Freimuth, "Theoretical Foundations of AIDS Media Campaigns," in AIDS: A Communication Perspective, ed. Timothy Edgar, Mary Anne Fitzpatrick, and Vicki S. Freimuth (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992), 101.
19. Charles Atkin and Alicia Marshall, "Health Communication," in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. Michael B. Salwen and Don W. Stacks (Norwood, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996), 479-95.
20. Deborah Dawson, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes: August 1988, Provisional Data From the National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 163, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 15 December 1988).
21. Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes for April-June 1989," Provisional Data From the National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 179, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 90-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 1 November 1989).
22. Centers for Disease Control, "Assessment of Broadcast Media Airings of AIDS-Related Public Service Announcements - United States, 1987-1990," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40, 9 August 1991, 543-47.
23. Susan L. Coyle and Robert F. Boruch, Evaluating AIDS Prevention Programs: Expanded Edition, ed. National Research Council on AIDS (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991), 50-82.
24. Randall, "Messages Prove."
25. See John S. Lyons, David B. Larson, Joseph C. Bareta, Ingrid Liu, Rachel Anderson, and Carolyn H. Sparks, "A Systematic Analysis of the Quantity of AIDS Publications and the Quality of Research Methods in Three General Medical Journals," Evaluation and Program Planning 13 (1990): 73-77; Paula Michal-Johnson and Sheryl Perlmutter Bowen, "The Place of Culture in HIV Education," in AIDS, ed. Edgar, Fitzpatrick, and Freimuth, 147-72.
26. See John S. Lyons, David B. Larson, Joseph C. Bareta, Ingrid Liu, Rachel Anderson, and Carolyn H. Sparks, "A Systematic Analysis of the Quantity of AIDS Publications and the Quality of Research Methods in Three General Medical Journals," Evaluation and Program Planning 13 (1990): 73-77; Paula Michal-Johnson and Sheryl Perlmutter Bowen, "The Place of Culture in HIV Education," in AIDS, ed. Edgar, Fitzpatrick, and Freimuth, 147-72.
27. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
28. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
29. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
30. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
31. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
32. See Linda Stewart Williams, "AIDS Risk Reduction: A Community Health Education Intervention for Minority High Risk Group Members," Health Education Quarterly 13 (winter 1986): 407-421; Ralph J. DiClemente, Cherrie B. Boyer, and Edward S. Morales, "Minorities and AIDS: Knowledge, Attitudes, And Misconceptions Among Black and Latino Adolescents," American Journal of Public Health 78 (January 1988): 55-57; Victor De La Cancela, "Minority AIDS Prevention: Moving Beyond Cultural Perspective Towards Sociopolitical Empowerment," AIDS Education and Prevention 1 (summer 1989): 141-53; Stephen B. Thomas, Aisha G. Gilliam, and Carolyn G. Iwrey, "Knowledge about AIDS and Reported Risk Behaviors Among Black College Students," Journal of American College Health 38 (September 1989): 61-65; William J. Brown, "An AIDS Prevention Campaign: Effects on Attitudes, Beliefs, and Communication Behavior," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/ August 1991): 666-78; Charles T. Salmon, Karen Wooten, Eileen Gentry, Galen E. Cole, and Fred Kroger, "AIDS Knowledge: Results From the First Decade of the Epidemic and Implications for Future Public Information Efforts" (paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Sydney, Australia, July 1994).
33. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
34. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
35. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
36. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
37. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
38. Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 17 (March 1987): 216-30; DiClemente, Boyer, and Morales, "Minorites and AIDS"; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Black Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 165, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 30 March 1989) ; Deborah A. Dawson and Ann M. Hardy, "AIDS Knowledge and Attitudes of Hispanic Americans, Provisional Data From the 1988 National Health Interview Survey," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 166, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 89-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 11 April 1989); Elizabeth Goodman and Alwyn T. Cobrall, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Adolescents: Knowledge, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Behaviors in a New York City Adolescent Minority Population," Pediatrics 84 (July 1989): 36-42; Allen J. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge Among Adults in the U.S.," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 34 (March 1993): 23-36.
39. Ralph Hingson, Lee Strunin, Michael Grady, Nancy Strunk, Robert Carr, Beth Berlin, and Donald E. Craven, "Knowledge about HIV and Behavioral Risks of Foreign-Born Boston Public School Students," American Journal of Public Health 81 (December 1991): 1638-1641.
40. Hingson et al., "Knowledge about HIV," 1640.
41. William J. Brown, "Culture and AIDS Education: Reaching High-Risk Heterosexuals in Asian-American Communities," Journal of Applied Communication Research 20 (August 1992): 275-91.
42. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge," 33.
43. Vicki M. Mays and Susan D. Cochran, "Issues in the Perception of AIDS Risk and Risk Reduction Activities by Black and Hispanic/Latina Women," American Psychologist 43 (November 1988): 949-57.
44. Cindy Struckman-Johnson, David Struckman-Johnson, Roy C. Gilliland, and Angela Ausman, "Effect of Persuasive Appeals in AIDS PSAs and Condom Commercials on Intentions to Use Condoms," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 24 (December 1994): 2223-2244.
45. Struckman-Johnson et al., "Effect of Persuasive Appeals."
46. Susan Campbell, Letitia Anne Peplau, and Sherrine DeBro, "Women, Men, and Condoms: Attitudes and Experiences of Heterosexual College Students," Psychology of Women Quarterly 16 (September 1992): 273-88.
47. Cindy J. Struckman-Johnson, Roy C. Gilliland, David L. Struckman-Johnson, and Terry C. North, "The Effects of Fear of AIDS and Gender on Responses to Fear-Arousing Condom Advertisements," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 20 (October 1990): 1396-1410.
48. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement Can Increase or Decrease Persuasion by Enhancing Message-Relevant Cognitive Response," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (October 1979): 1915-1926; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement as a Moderator of the Effects on Attitude of Advertising Content and Context," in Advances in Consumer Research 8, ed. Kent B. Monroe (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981), 20-24; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
49. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement Can Increase or Decrease Persuasion by Enhancing Message-Relevant Cognitive Response," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (October 1979): 1915-1926; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement as a Moderator of the Effects on Attitude of Advertising Content and Context," in Advances in Consumer Research 8, ed. Kent B. Monroe (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981), 20-24; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
50. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement Can Increase or Decrease Persuasion by Enhancing Message-Relevant Cognitive Response," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (October 1979): 1915-1926; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Issue Involvement as a Moderator of the Effects on Attitude of Advertising Content and Context," in Advances in Consumer Research 8, ed. Kent B. Monroe (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 1981), 20-24; Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
51. Estimated foreign-born residents age 18 and older in Gerry E. Hendershot, "Health of the Foreign Born Population, United States 1985-86," Advance Data From Vital and Health Statistics, no. 157, DHHS Publication no. (PHS) 88-1250 (Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Center for Health Statistics, 1988).
52. See Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "Adolescents and AIDS: A Survey of Knowledge, Beliefs, and Attitudes about AIDS in San Francisco," American Jo urnal of Public Health 76 (December 1986): 1443-1445; Vickie M. Mays and Susan D. Cochran, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Black Americans: Special Psychological Issues," Public Health Reports 102 (March-April 1987):224-31 ; Susan D. Cochran, "Women and HIV Infection: Issues in Prevention and Behavior Change," in Primary Prevention of AIDS: Psychological Approaches, ed. Vickie M. Mays, George W. Albee, and Stanley F. Schneider (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 309-328.
53. See Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "Adolescents and AIDS: A Survey of Knowledge, Beliefs, and Attitudes about AIDS in San Francisco," American Jo urnal of Public Health 76 (December 1986): 1443-1445; Vickie M. Mays and Susan D. Cochran, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Black Americans: Special Psychological Issues," Public Health Reports 102 (March-April 1987):224-31 ; Susan D. Cochran, "Women and HIV Infection: Issues in Prevention and Behavior Change," in Primary Prevention of AIDS: Psychological Approaches, ed. Vickie M. Mays, George W. Albee, and Stanley F. Schneider (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 309-328.
54. See Ralph J. DiClemente, Jim Zorn, and Lydia Temoshok, "Adolescents and AIDS: A Survey of Knowledge, Beliefs, and Attitudes about AIDS in San Francisco," American Jo urnal of Public Health 76 (December 1986): 1443-1445; Vickie M. Mays and Susan D. Cochran, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Black Americans: Special Psychological Issues," Public Health Reports 102 (March-April 1987):224-31 ; Susan D. Cochran, "Women and HIV Infection: Issues in Prevention and Behavior Change," in Primary Prevention of AIDS: Psychological Approaches, ed. Vickie M. Mays, George W. Albee, and Stanley F. Schneider (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 309-328.
55. Sandra L. Calvert, Rodney R. Cocking, and Milena Smrcek, "AIDS Public Service Announcements: A Paradigm for Behavioral Science," Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 12 (April 1991): 255-67.
56. Struckman-Johnson et al., "Effect of Persuasive Appeals," 2223.
57. Byron R. Reeves, John Newhagen, Edward Maibach, Michael Basil, and Kathleen Kurz, "Negative and Positive Television Messages: Effects of Message Type and Context on Attention and Memory," American Behavioral Scientist 34 (July/August 1991): 679-94.
58. James Price Dillard, Courtney A. Plotnick, Linda C. Godbold, Vicki S. Freimuth, and Timothy Edgar, "The Multiple Affective Outcomes of AIDS PSAs: Fear Appeals Do More Than Scare People," Communication Research 23 (February 1996): 44-72.
59. Vicki S. Freimuth, Sharon L. Hammond, Timothy Edgar, and Jennifer L. Monahan, "Reaching Those at Risk: A Content-Analytic Study of AIDS PSAs," Communication Research 17 (December 1990): 775-91.
60. June A. Flora and Edward W. Maibach, "Cognitive Responses to AIDS Information," Communication Research 17 (December 1990): 759-74.
61. Freimuth et al., "Reaching Those at Risk."
62. John Schwartz, "Anti-AIDS Campaign Aimed at Youth: Frank New Radio and TV Ads Promote Abstinence and Condoms," The Washington Post, 5 January 1994, sec. A, p. 1, col. 1.
63. Schwartz, "Anti-AIDS Campaign."
64. John P. Murray Jr., Antonie Stam, and John L. Lastovcka, "Paid-versus Donated-Media Strategies for Public Service Announcement Campaigns," Public Opinion Quarterly 60 (spring 1996): 1-30.
65. Kim Witte, "The Role of Culture in Health and Diseases," and "Preventing AIDS Through Persuasive Communication: A Framework for Constructing Effective Culturally-Specific Health Messages," in Mass Media Effects Across Cultures, ed. Felipe Korzenny and Stella Ting-Toomy with Elizabeth Schiff (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 67-86. For research evidence indicating that young people tend to minimize the risk, see Timothy Edgar, Vicki S. Freimuth, and Sharon L. Hammond, "Communicating the AIDS Risk to College Students: The Problem of Motivating Change," Health Education Research: Theory and Practice 3 (April 1988): 59-65; Freimuth, Edgar, and Hammond, "College Students' Awareness"; Goodwin and Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge."
66. Kim Witte, "The Role of Culture in Health and Diseases," and "Preventing AIDS Through Persuasive Communication: A Framework for Constructing Effective Culturally-Specific Health Messages," in Mass Media Effects Across Cultures, ed. Felipe Korzenny and Stella Ting-Toomy with Elizabeth Schiff (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 67-86. For research evidence indicating that young people tend to minimize the risk, see Timothy Edgar, Vicki S. Freimuth, and Sharon L. Hammond, "Communicating the AIDS Risk to College Students: The Problem of Motivating Change," Health Education Research: Theory and Practice 3 (April 1988): 59-65; Freimuth, Edgar, and Hammond, "College Students' Awareness"; Goodwin and Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge."
67. Kim Witte, "The Role of Culture in Health and Diseases," and "Preventing AIDS Through Persuasive Communication: A Framework for Constructing Effective Culturally-Specific Health Messages," in Mass Media Effects Across Cultures, ed. Felipe Korzenny and Stella Ting-Toomy with Elizabeth Schiff (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 67-86. For research evidence indicating that young people tend to minimize the risk, see Timothy Edgar, Vicki S. Freimuth, and Sharon L. Hammond, "Communicating the AIDS Risk to College Students: The Problem of Motivating Change," Health Education Research: Theory and Practice 3 (April 1988): 59-65; Freimuth, Edgar, and Hammond, "College Students' Awareness"; Goodwin and Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge."
68. Kim Witte, "The Role of Culture in Health and Diseases," and "Preventing AIDS Through Persuasive Communication: A Framework for Constructing Effective Culturally-Specific Health Messages," in Mass Media Effects Across Cultures, ed. Felipe Korzenny and Stella Ting-Toomy with Elizabeth Schiff (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 67-86. For research evidence indicating that young people tend to minimize the risk, see Timothy Edgar, Vicki S. Freimuth, and Sharon L. Hammond, "Communicating the AIDS Risk to College Students: The Problem of Motivating Change," Health Education Research: Theory and Practice 3 (April 1988): 59-65; Freimuth, Edgar, and Hammond, "College Students' Awareness"; Goodwin and Roscoe, "AIDS: Students' Knowledge."
69. Participants were composed of freshmen (31.8%),sophomores (23.7%), juniors (21.6%), and seniors (22.7%). Median age was 21, ranging from 17 to 41. Ethnicity of the U.S. participants (n = 61) was as follows: Caucasian = 41; African American = 17; Hispanic American = 1; and unknown = 2.
70. See Wayne Wanta and William R. Elliott, "Did the Magic' Work? Knowledge of HIV/AIDS and the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (summer 1995): 312-21; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge."
71. See Wayne Wanta and William R. Elliott, "Did the Magic' Work? Knowledge of HIV/AIDS and the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (summer 1995): 312-21; Salmon et al., "AIDS Knowledge."
72. In order to collect these PSAs, we contacted the Centers of Disease Control in Atlanta, the departments of health and human services in several states, and advertising agencies participating in producing AIDS PSAs. We obtained a compilation of forty active PSAs (1987-92) from the CDC, and added eleven PSAs and discussed until they agreed on the selection of twelve thirty-second PSAs. The researchers concurred on this short list of PSAs in a review session with their GAs. A group of undergraduate volunteers (n = 24) then rated each of these twelve PSAs using a 7-point bipolar semantic differential scale. Items in this scale included "emotional-not emotional," "informative-not informative," and "mild-intense."
73. For example, one PSA judged to be emotional message appeals was titled "Mother," and question wording was "According to this PSA, what did the mother speaking directly to the camera want her child to do?" Similarly, "According to this PSA, what does the sock symbolize?" was the question used in the case of "Socks" PSA for rational message appeals.
74. Howard Schuman and Stanley Presser, Questions and Answers in Attitude Surveys: Experiments on Question form, Wording, and Context (NY: Academic Press, 1981).
75. George Hartman, "A Field Experiment on the Comparative Effectiveness of Emotional and Rational Political Leaflets in Determining Election Results," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 3 (April-June 1936): 99-114.
76. For the importance of using foreign-born students as subjects, see Hingson et al., "Knowledge about HIV"; Brown, "Culture and AIDS Education." Twenty-seven international participants were from seventeen countries: Brazil (1), China (1), France (1), Germany (2), Hong Kong (1), Iran (1), Jordan (1), Kuwait (2), Laos (5), Malaysia (1), Nicaragua (1), Peru (1), Puerto Rico (2), Saudi Arabia (1), Syria (1), Taiwan (2), and Vietnam (3). While there are differences among international students, the focus of this study was on nationals and others (i.e., international).
77. For further discussion on reference groups, see Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior. An Inventory of Scientific Findings (NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964); Alfred F. Smith, Communication and Culture (NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); Carolyn W. Sherif and Muzafer Sherif, eds. Attitude, Ego-Involvement, and Change (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1967).
78. For further discussion on reference groups, see Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior. An Inventory of Scientific Findings (NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964); Alfred F. Smith, Communication and Culture (NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); Carolyn W. Sherif and Muzafer Sherif, eds. Attitude, Ego-Involvement, and Change (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1967).
79. For further discussion on reference groups, see Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior. An Inventory of Scientific Findings (NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964); Alfred F. Smith, Communication and Culture (NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); Carolyn W. Sherif and Muzafer Sherif, eds. Attitude, Ego-Involvement, and Change (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1967).
80. Hingson et al., "Knowledge about HIV."
81. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge"; Mays and Cochran, "Issues in the Perception of AIDS."
82. LeBlanc, "Examining HIV-Related Knowledge"; Mays and Cochran, "Issues in the Perception of AIDS."
83. Bush and Boller, "Rethinking the Role of Television Advertising."
84. See Garrett J. O'Keefe and Kathleen Reid, "The Uses and Effects of Public Service Advertising," in Public Relations Research Annual 2, ed. Larissa A. Grunig and James E. Grunig (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990), 67-91.