Role of transcription factors in skeletal muscle and the potential for pharmacological manipulation

Current Opinion in Pharmacology

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 300-308

  Martin, Paul T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DYSTROPHIN; HISTONE ACETYLTRANSFERASE; HISTONE DEACETYLASE; MYOD1 PROTEIN; MYOGENIC FACTOR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; UTROPHIN;

CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FATE; CELL GROWTH; CELL MIGRATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL REGENERATION; GENE MUTATION; GENE THERAPY; GENETIC MANIPULATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; MUSCLE CELL; MUSCLE DISEASE; MUSCLE INJURY; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY; NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPSE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN TARGETING; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOSARCOMA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKELETAL MUSCLE; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION;

ACETYLTRANSFERASES; ANIMALS; DNA-BINDING PROTEINS; DRUG DESIGN; HISTONE ACETYLTRANSFERASES; HISTONE DEACETYLASES; HOMEODOMAIN PROTEINS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; MUSCULAR DYSTROPHIES; MYOGENIC REGULATORY FACTORS; PAIRED BOX TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS; PAX7 TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE PROTEINS; SYNAPSES; TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS; TRANSCRIPTION, GENETIC;

EID: 0038177841     PISSN: 14714892     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1471-4892(03)00050-X     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Pownall M.E. Gustafsson M.K. Emerson C.P.Jr. Myogenic regulatory factors and the specification of muscle progenitors in vertebrate embryos Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 18 2002 747-783.
2. Megeney L.A. Kablar B. Garrett K. Anderson J.E. Rudnicki M.A. MyoD is required for myogenic stem cell function in adult skeletal muscle Genes Dev. 10 1996 1173-1183.
3. Kaul A. Koster M. Neuhaus H. Braun T. Myf-5 revisited: loss of early myotome formation does not lead to a rib phenotype in homozygous Myf-5 mutant mice Cell 102 2000 17-19.
4. Olson E.N. Arnold H.H. Rigby P.W. Wold B.J. Know your neighbors: three phenotypes in null mutants of the myogenic bHLH gene MRF4 Cell 85 1996 1-4.
5. Amack J.D. Reagan S.R. Mahadevan M.S. Mutant DMPK 3′-UTR transcripts disrupt C2C12 myogenic differentiation by compromising MyoD J. Cell Biol. 159 2002 419-429.
6. Sato S. Nakamura M. Cho D.H. Tapscott S.J. Ozaki H. Kawakami K. Identification of transcriptional targets for Six5: implication for the pathogenesis of myotonic dystrophy type 1 Hum. Mol. Genet. 11 2002 1045-1058.
7. Wu H. Olson E.N. Activation of the MEF2 transcription factor in skeletal muscles from myotonic mice J. Clin. Invest. 109 2002 1327-1333.
8. Bergstrom D.A. Penn B.H. Strand A. Perry R.L. Rudnicki M.A. Tapscott S.J. Promoter-specific regulation of MyoD binding and signal transduction cooperate to pattern gene expression Mol. Cell 9 2002 587-600.
9. Corbi N. Di Padova M. De Angelis R. Bruno T. Libri V. Iezzi S. Floridi A. Fanciulli M.Passananti C.The alpha-like RNA polymerase II core subunit 3 (RPB3) is involved in tissue-specific transcription and muscle differentiation via interaction with the myogenic factor myogenin FASEB J. 16 2002 1639-1641.
10. Zhao P. Iezzi S. Carver E. Dressman D. Gridley T. Sartorelli V. Hoffman E.P. Slug is a novel downstream target of MyoD. Temporal profiling in muscle regeneration J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 30091-30101.
11. Sanchez-Martin M. Rodriguez-Garcia A. Perez-Losada J. Sagrera A. Read A.P. Sanchez-Garcia I.SLUG (SNAI2) deletions in patients with Waardenburg disease Hum. Mol. Genet. 11 2002 3231-3236.
12. Chi N. Epstein J.A. Getting your Pax straight: Pax proteins in development and disease Trends Genet. 18 2002 41-47.
13. Buckingham M. Skeletal muscle formation in vertebrates Curr. Opin. Genet Dev. 11 2001 440-448.
14. Gustafsson M.K. Pan H. Pinney D.F. Liu Y. Lewandowski A. Epstein D.J. Emerson C.P.Jr. Myf5 is a direct target of long-range Shh signaling and Gli regulation for muscle specification Genes Dev. 16 2002 114-126.
15. Chen J.C. Ramachandran R. Goldhamer D.J. Essential and redundant functions of the MyoD distal regulatory region revealed by targeted mutagenesis Dev. Biol. 245 2002 213-223.
16. Teboul L. Hadchouel J. Daubas P. Summerbell D. Buckingham M. Rigby P.W. The early epaxial enhancer is essential for the initial expression of the skeletal muscle determination gene Myf5 but not for subsequent, multiple phases of somitic myogenesis Development 129 2002 4571-4580.
17. Black B.L. Olson E.N. Transcriptional control of muscle development by myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF2) proteins Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 14 1998 167-196.
18. Lin Q. Schwarz J. Bucana C. Olson E.N. Control of mouse cardiac morphogenesis and myogenesis by transcription factor MEF2C Science 276 1997 1404-1407.
19. Naya F.J. Black B.L. Wu H. Bassel-Duby R. Richardson J.A. Hill J.A. Olson E.N. Mitochondrial deficiency and cardiac sudden death in mice lacking the MEF2A transcription factor Nat. Med. 8 2002 1303-1309.
20. Maeda T. Chapman D.L. Stewart A.F. Mammalian vestigial-like 2, a cofactor of TEF-1 and MEF2 transcription factors that promotes skeletal muscle differentiation J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 48889-48898.
21. Dichoso D. Brodigan T. Chwoe K.Y. Lee J.S. Llacer R. Park M. Corsi A.K. Kostas S.A. Fire A. Ahnn J. et al.The MADS-Box factor CeMEF2 is not essential for Caenorhabditis elegans myogenesis and development Dev. Biol. 223 2000 431 440.
22. McKinsey T.A. Zhang C.L. Olson E.N. Control of muscle development by dueling HATs and HDACs Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 11 2001 497-504.
23. de la Serna I.L. Carlson K.A. Imbalzano A.N. Mammalian SWI/SNF complexes promote MyoD-mediated muscle differentiation Nat. Genet. 27 2001 187-190.
24. Roy K. De La Serna I.L. Imbalzano A.N. The myogenic basic helix-loop-helix family of transcription factors shows similar requirements for SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling enzymes during muscle differentiation in culture J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 33818-33824.
25. Chen S.L. Loffler K.A. Chen D. Stallcup M.R. Muscat G.E. The coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase is necessary for muscle differentiation: CARM1 coactivates myocyte enhancer factor-2 J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 4324-4333.
26. Zhang C.L. McKinsey T.A. Olson E.N. Association of class II histone deacetylases with heterochromatin protein 1: potential role for histone methylation in control of muscle differentiation Mol. Cell Biol. 22 2002 7302-7312.
27. Perry R.L. Parker M.H. Rudnicki M.A. Activated MEK1 binds the nuclear MyoD transcriptional complex to repress transactivation Mol. Cell 8 2001 291-301.
28. Lazaro J.B. Bailey P.J. Lassar A.B. Cyclin D-cdk4 activity modulates the subnuclear localization and interaction of MEF2 with SRC-family coactivators during skeletal muscle differentiation Genes Dev. 16 2002 1792-1805.
29. Iezzi S. Cossu G. Nervi C. Sartorelli V. Puri P.L. Stage-specific modulation of skeletal myogenesis by inhibitors of nuclear deacetylases Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 2002 7757-7762.
30. Heanue T.A. Reshef R. Davis R.J. Mardon G. Oliver G. Tomarev S. Lassar A.B. Tabin C.J. Synergistic regulation of vertebrate muscle development by Dach2, Eya2, and Six1, homologs of genes required for Drosophila eye formation Genes Dev. 13 1999 3231-3243.
31. Kardon G. Heanue T.A. Tabin C.J. Pax3 and Dach2 positive regulation in the developing somite Dev. Dyn. 224 2002 350-355.
32. Ridgeway A.G. Skerjanc I.S. Pax3 is essential for skeletal myogenesis and the expression of Six1 and Eya2 J. Biol. Chem. 276 2001 19033-19039.
33. Stamataki D. Kastrinaki M. Mankoo B.S. Pachnis V. Karagogeos D. Homeodomain proteins Mox1 and Mox2 associate with Pax1 and Pax3 transcription factors FEBS Lett. 499 2001 274-278.
34. Mankoo B.S. Collins N.S. Ashby P. Grigorieva E. Pevny L.H. Candia A. Wright C.V. Rigby P.W. Pachnis V. Mox2 is a component of the genetic hierarchy controlling limb muscle development Nature 400 1999 69-73.
35. Hollenbach A.D. McPherson C.J. Lagutina I. Grosveld G. The EF-hand calcium-binding protein calmyrin inhibits the transcriptional and DNA-binding activity of Pax3 Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1574 2002 321-328.
36. Seale P. Sabourin L.A. Girgis-Gabardo A. Mansouri A. Gruss P. Rudnicki M.A. Pax7 is required for the specification of myogenic satellite cells Cell 102 2000 777-786.
37. Hawke T.J. Garry D.J. Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology J. Appl. Physiol. 91 2001 534-551.
38. Xia B. Hoyte K. Kammesheidt A. Deerinck T. Ellisman M. Martin P.T. Overexpression of the CT GalNAc transferase in skeletal muscle alters myofiber growth, neuromuscular structure, and laminin expression Dev. Biol. 242 2002 58-73.
39. Syagailo Y. Okladnova O. Reimer E. Grassle M. Mossner R. Gattenlohner S. Marx A.Meyer J.Lesch K.Structural and functional characterization of the human PAX7 5′- flanking regulatory region Gene 294 2002 259.
40. Barr F.G. Gene fusions involving PAX and FOX family members in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma Oncogene 20 2001 5736-5746.
41. Xia S.J. Pressey J.G. Barr F.G. Molecular pathogenesis of rhabdomyosarcoma Cancer Biol. Ther. 1 2002 97-104.
42. Sorensen P.H. Lynch J.C. Qualman S.J. Tirabosco R. Lim J.F. Maurer H.M. Bridge J.A. Crist W.M. Triche T.J. Barr F.G. PAX3-FKHR and PAX7-FKHR gene fusions are prognostic indicators in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma: a report from the children's oncology group J. Clin. Oncol. 20 2002 2672-2679.
43. Lagutina I. Conway S.J. Sublett J. Grosveld G.C. Pax3-FKHR knock-in mice show developmental aberrations but do not develop tumors Mol. Cell Biol. 22 2002 7204-7216.
44. Schafer K. Braun T. Early specification of limb muscle precursor cells by the homeobox gene Lbx1h Nat. Genet. 23 1999 213-216.
45. Brohmann H. Jagla K. Birchmeier C. The role of Lbx1 in migration of muscle precursor cells Development 127 2000 437-445.
46. Gross M.K. Moran-Rivard L. Velasquez T. Nakatsu M.N. Jagla K. Goulding M. Lbx1 is required for muscle precursor migration along a lateral pathway into the limb Development 127 2000 413-424.
47. Degenhardt K. Sassoon D.A. A role for Engrailed-2 in determination of skeletal muscle physiologic properties Dev. Biol. 231 2001 175-189.
48. Odelberg S.J. Kollhoff A. Keating M.T. Dedifferentiation of mammalian myotubes induced by msx1 Cell 103 2000 1099-1109.
49. Lin J. Wu H. Tarr P.T. Zhang C.Y. Wu Z. Boss O. Michael L.F. Puigserver P. Isotani E. Olson E.N. et al. Transcriptional co-activator PGC-1 alpha drives the formation of slow-twitch muscle fibres Nature 418 2002 797-801.
50. Kegley K.M. Gephart J. Warren G.L. Pavlath G.K. Altered primary myogenesis in NFATC3(-/-) mice leads to decreased muscle size in the adult Dev. Biol. 232 2001 115-126.
51. Horsley V. Friday B.B. Matteson S. Kegley K.M. Gephart J. Pavlath G.K. Regulation of the growth of multinucleated muscle cells by an NFATC2-dependent pathway J. Cell Biol. 153 2001 329-338.
52. Ruiz-Gomez M. Coutts N. Suster M.L. Landgraf M. Bate M. Myoblasts incompetent encodes a zinc finger transcription factor required to specify fusion-competent myoblasts in Drosophila Development 129 2002 133-141.
53. Duan H. Skeath J.B. Nguyen H.T. Drosophila Lame duck, a novel member of the Gli superfamily, acts as a key regulator of myogenesis by controlling fusion-competent myoblast development Development 128 2001 4489-4500.
54. Schaeffer L. De Kerchove d'Exaerde A. Changeux J.P. Targeting transcription to the neuromuscular synapse Neuron 31 2001 15-22.
55. Sanes J.R. Lichtman J.W. Development of the vertebrate neuromuscular junction Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22 1999 389-442.
56. Burden S.J. The formation of neuromuscular synapses Genes Dev. 12 1998 133-148.
57. Sandrock A.W.Jr. Dryer S.E. Rosen K.M. Gozani S.N. Kramer R. Theill L.E. Fischbach G.D. Maintenance of acetylcholine receptor number by neuregulins at the neuromuscular junction in vivo Science 276 1997 599-603.
58. Koike S. Schaeffer L. Changeux J.P. Identification of a DNA element determining synaptic expression of the mouse acetylcholine receptor delta-subunit gene Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 1995 10624-10628.
59. Duclert A. Savatier N. Schaeffer L. Changeux J.P. Identification of an element crucial for the sub-synaptic expression of the acetylcholine receptor epsilon-subunit gene J. Biol. Chem. 271 1996 17433-17438.
60. Sapru M.K. Florance S.K. Kirk C. Goldman D. Identification of a neuregulin and protein-tyrosine phosphatase response element in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor epsilon subunit gene: regulatory role of an Rts transcription factor Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95 1998 1289-1294.
61. Schaeffer L. Duclert N. Huchet-Dymanus M. Changeux J.P. Implication of a multisubunit Ets-related transcription factor in synaptic expression of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor EMBO J. 17 1998 3078-3090.
62. Gramolini A.O. Angus L.M. Schaeffer L. Burton E.A. Tinsley J.M. Davies K.E. Changeux J.P. Jasmin B.J. Induction of utrophin gene expression by heregulin in skeletal muscle cells: role of the N-box motif and GA binding protein Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 1999 3223-3227.
63. Angus L.M. Chan R.Y. Jasmin B.J. Role of intronic E- and N-box motifs in the transcriptional induction of the acetylcholinesterase gene during myogenic differentiation J. Biol. Chem. 276 2001 17603-17609.
64. De Kerchove D'Exaerde A. Cartaud J. Ravel-Chapuis A. Seroz T. Pasteau F. Angus L.M. Jasmin B.J. Changeux J.P. Schaeffer L. Expression of mutant Ets protein at the neuromuscular synapse causes alterations in morphology and gene expression EMBO Rep. 3 2002 1075-1081.
65. Nichols P. Croxen R. Vincent A. Rutter R. Hutchinson M. Newsom-Davis J. Beeson D. Mutation of the acetylcholine receptor epsilon-subunit promoter in congenital myasthenic syndrome Ann. Neurol. 45 1999 439-443.
66. Ohno K. Anlar B. Engel A.G. Congenital myasthenic syndrome caused by a mutation in the Ets-binding site of the promoter region of the acetylcholine receptor epsilon subunit gene Neuromuscul. Disord. 9 1999 131-135.
67. Abicht A. Stucka R. Schmidt C. Briguet A. Hopfner S. Song I.H. Pongratz D. Muller-Felber W. Ruegg M.A. Lochmuller H. A newly identified chromosomal microdeletion and an N-box mutation of the AChR epsilon gene cause a congenital myasthenic syndrome Brain 125 2002 1005-1013.
68. Briguet A. Ruegg M.A. The Ets transcription factor GABP is required for postsynaptic differentiation in vivo J. Neurosci. 20 2000 5989-5996.
69. Fu A.K. Fu W.Y. Cheung J. Tsim K.W. Ip F.C. Wang J.H. Ip N.Y. Cdk5 is involved in neuregulin-induced AChR expression at the neuromuscular junction Nat. Neurosci. 4 2001 374-381.
70. Fromm L. Burden S.J. Neuregulin-1-stimulated phosphorylation of GABP in skeletal muscle cells Biochemistry 40 2001 5306-5312.
71. Galvagni F. Capo S. Oliviero S. Sp1 and Sp3 physically interact and co-operate with GABP for the activation of the utrophin promoter J. Mol. Biol. 306 2001 985-996.
72. Gyrd-Hansen M. Krag T.O. Rosmarin A.G. Khurana T.S. Sp1 and the ets-related transcription factor complex GABP alpha/beta functionally cooperate to activate the utrophin promoter J. Neurol. Sci. 197 2002 27-35.
73. Tinsley J.M. Potter A.C. Phelps S.R. Fisher R. Trickett J.I. Davies K.E. Amelioration of the dystrophic phenotype of mdx mice using a truncated utrophin transgene Nature 384 1996 349-353.
74. Deconinck N. Tinsley J. De Backer F. Fisher R. Kahn D. Phelps S. Davies K. Gillis J.M. Expression of truncated utrophin leads to major functional improvements in dystrophin-deficient muscles of mice Nat. Med. 3 1997 1216-1221.
75. Tinsley J. Deconinck N. Fisher R. Kahn D. Phelps S. Gillis J.M. Davies K. Expression of full-length utrophin prevents muscular dystrophy in mdx mice Nat. Med. 4 1998 1441-1444.
76. Blake D.J. Weir A. Newey S.E. Davies K.E. Function and genetics of dystrophin and dystrophin-related proteins in muscle Physiol. Rev. 82 2002 291-329.
77. Rafael J.A. Tinsley J.M. Potter A.C. Deconinck A.E. Davies K.E. Skeletal muscle-specific expression of a utrophin transgene rescues utrophin-dystrophin deficient mice Nat. Genet. 19 1998 79-82.
78. Rybakova I.N. Patel J.R. Davies K.E. Yurchenco P.D. Ervasti J.M. Utrophin binds laterally along actin filaments and can couple costameric actin with sarcolemma when overexpressed in dystrophin-deficient muscle Mol. Biol. Cell 13 2002 1512-1521.
79. Burkin D.J. Wallace G.Q. Nicol K.J. Kaufman D.J. Kaufman S.J. Enhanced expression of the alpha 7 beta 1 integrin reduces muscular dystrophy and restores viability in dystrophic mice J. Cell Biol. 152 2001 1207-1218.
80. Nguyen H.H. Jayasinha V. Xia B. Hoyte K. Martin P.T. Overexpression of the cytotoxic T cell GalNAc transferase in skeletal muscle inhibits muscular dystrophy in mdx mice Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 2002 5616-5621.
81. Wehling M. Spencer M.J. Tidball J.G. A nitric oxide synthase transgene ameliorates muscular dystrophy in mdx mice J. Cell Biol. 155 2001 123-131.
82. Moll J. Barzaghi P. Lin S. Bezakova G. Lochmuller H. Engvall E. Muller U. Ruegg M.A. An agrin minigene rescues dystrophic symptoms in a mouse model for congenital muscular dystrophy Nature 413 2001 302-307.
83. Kronqvist P. Kawaguchi N. Albrechtsen R. Xu X. Schroder H.D. Moghadaszadeh B. Nielsen F.C. Frohlich C. Engvall E. Wewer U.M. ADAM12 alleviates the skeletal muscle pathology in mdx dystrophic mice Am. J. Pathol. 161 2002 1535-1540.
84. Spencer M.J. Mellgren R.L. Overexpression of a calpastatin transgene in mdx muscle reduces dystrophic pathology Hum. Mol. Genet. 11 2002 2645-2655.
85. Barton E.R. Morris L. Musaro A. Rosenthal N. Sweeney H.L. Muscle-specific expression of insulin-like growth factor I counters muscle decline in mdx mice J. Cell Biol. 157 2002 137-148.
86. Bogdanovich S. Krag T.O. Barton E.R. Morris L.D. Whittemore L.A. Ahima R.S. Khurana T.S. Functional improvement of dystrophic muscle by myostatin blockade Nature 420 2002 418-421.
87. Langley B. Thomas M. Bishop A. Sharma M. Gilmour S. Kambadur R. Myostatin inhibits myoblast differentiation by down regulating MyoD expression J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 49831-49840.
88. Fisher R. Tinsley J.M. Phelps S.R. Squire S.E. Townsend E.R. Martin J.E. Davies K.E. Non-toxic ubiquitous over-expression of utrophin in the mdx mouse Neuromuscul. Disord. 11 2001 713-721.
89. Burton E.A. Tinsley J.M. Holzfeind P.J. Rodrigues N.R. Davies K.E. A second promoter provides an alternative target for therapeutic up-regulation of utrophin in Duchenne muscular dystrophy Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 1999 14025-14030.
90. Weir A.P. Burton E.A. Harrod G. Davies K.E. A- and B-utrophin have different expression patterns and are differentially up-regulated in mdx muscle J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 45285-45290.
91. Jasmin B.J. Angus L.M. Belanger G. Chakkalakal J.V. Gramolini A.O. Lunde J.A. Stocksley M.A. Thompson J. Multiple regulatory events controlling the expression and localization of utrophin in skeletal muscle fibers: insights into a therapeutic strategy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy J. Physiol. (Paris) 96 2002 31-42.
92. Galvagni F. Cantini M. Oliviero S. The utrophin gene is transcriptionally up-regulated in regenerating muscle J. Biol. Chem. 277 2002 19106-19113.
93. Gramolini A.O. Belanger G. Jasmin B.J. Distinct regions in the 3′ untranslated region are responsible for targeting and stabilizing utrophin transcripts in skeletal muscle cells J. Cell Biol. 154 2001 1173-1183.
94. Phillips W.D. Noakes P.G. Roberds S.L. Campbell K.P. Merlie J.P. Clustering and immobilization of acetylcholine receptors by the 43-kD protein: a possible role for dystrophin-related protein J. Cell Biol. 123 1993 729-740.
95. Martin P.T. Ettinger A.J. Sanes J.R. A synaptic localization domain in the synaptic cleft protein laminin beta 2 (s-laminin) Science 269 1995 413-416.
96. Loeb J.A. Hmadcha A. Fischbach G.D. Land S.J. Zakarian V.L. Neuregulin expression at neuromuscular synapses is modulated by synaptic activity and neurotrophic factors J. Neurosci. 22 2002 2206-2214.
97. Lin W. Burgess R.W. Dominguez B. Pfaff S.L. Sanes J.R. Lee K.F. Distinct roles of nerve and muscle in postsynaptic differentiation of the neuromuscular synapse Nature 410 2001 1057-1064.
98. Yang X. Arber S. William C. Li L. Tanabe Y. Jessell T.M. Birchmeier C. Burden S.J. Patterning of muscle acetylcholine receptor gene expression in the absence of motor innervation Neuron 30 2001 399-410.
99. Yi C.E. Bekker J.M. Miller G. Hill K.L. Crosbie R.H. Specific and potent RNA interference in terminally differentiated myotubes J. Biol. Chem. 278 2003 934-939.