BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection

Thorax

Volumn 58, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2003, Pages

  Davies, C W H ^b   Gleeson, F V ^a   Davies, R J O ^a  

^a CHURCHILL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b ROYAL BERKSHIRE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFUROXIME; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLAVULANIC ACID; CLINDAMYCIN; MEROPENEM; METRONIDAZOLE; PENICILLIN G; PIPERACILLIN; STREPTOKINASE; TAZOBACTAM; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; UROKINASE;

ANESTHESIA; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRONCHOSCOPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; EMPYEMA; EPISTAXIS; FEVER; GRAM STAINING; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERSENSITIVITY; LABORATORY TEST; NUTRITION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PHYSICIAN ATTITUDE; PLEURA FLUID; PLEURAL PAIN; PLEURISY; PNEUMONIA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; THORAX DRAINAGE; THORAX SURGERY;

EID: 0038026000     PISSN: 00406376     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/thx.58.suppl_2.ii18     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Berger HA, Morganroth ML. Immediate drainage is not required for all patients with complicated parapneumonic effusions. Chest 1990;97:731-5. [III]
2. Strange C, Sahn SA. The clinician's perspective on parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Chest 1993;103:259-61. [IIb]
3. Sahn SA. Management of complicated parapneumonic effusions. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;148:813-7. [IV]
4. Ferguson AD, Prescott RJ, Selkon JB, et al. Empyema subcommittee of the Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society. The clinical course and management of thoracic empyema. Q J Med 1996;89:285-9. [III]
5. Heffner JE, McDonald J, Barbieri C, et al. Management of parapneumonic effusions. An analysis of physician practice patterns. Arch Surg 1995;130:433-8. [III]
6. 2. Chest 1973;64:591-6. [IIb]
7. Matsumoto AN. Image guided drainage of complicated pleural effusions and adjunctive use of intrapleural urokinase. Chest 1995;108:1190-1. [III]
8. Parmar JM. How to insert a chest drain. Br J Hosp Med 1989;42:231-3. [IV]
9. Wait MA, Sharma S, Hahn J, et al. A randomized trial of empyema therapy. Chest 1997;111:1548-51. [Ib]
10. LeMense GP, Strange C, Sahn SA. Empyema thoracis. Therapeutic management and outcome. Chest 1995;107:1532-7. [III]
11. Storm HK, Krasnik M, Sang K, et al. Treatment of pleural empyema secondary to pneumonia: thoracocentesis regimen versus tube drainage. Thorax 1992;47:821-4. [III]
12. Mackenzie JW. Video-assisted thoracoscopy: treatment for empyema and hemothorax. Chest 1996;109:2-3. [IV]
13. Galea JL, De Souza A, Beggs D, et al. The surgical management of empyema thoracis. J R.Coll Surg Edinb 1997;42:15-18. [III]
14. Wallenhaupt SL. Surgical management of thoracic empyema. J Thorac Imaging 1991;6:80-8. [III]
15. Meyer JA. Gotthard Bulau and closed water-seal drainage for empyema, 1875-1891. Ann Thorac Surg 1989;48:597-9. [IV]
16. Peters RM. Empyema thoracis: historical perspective. Ann Thorac Surg 1989;48:306-8. [IV]
17. Heffner JE. Diagnosis and management of thoracic empyemas. Curr Opin Pulmon Med 1996;2:198-205. [IV]
18. Bartlett JG. Anaerobic bacterial infections of the lung and pleural space. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16(Suppl 4):S248-55. [IV]
19. Stiles QR, Lindesmith GG, Tucker BL, et al. Pleural empyema in children. Ann Thorac Surg 1970;10:37-44. [III]
20. Alfageme I, Munoz F, Pena N, et al. Empyema of the thorax in adults. Etiology, microbiologic findings, and management. Chest 1993;103:839-43. [III]
21. Tillett WS, Sherry S. The effect in patients of streptococcal fibrinolysin (streptokinase) and streptococcal desoxyribonudease on fibrinous, purulent, and sanguinous pleural exudations. J Clin Invest 1949;28:173-90. [III]
22. Macfarlane JT. Pneumonia and other acute infections: acute respiratory infections in adults. In: Brewis RAL, Corrin B, Geddes DM, Gibson GJ, eds. Respiratory medicine. London: W B Saunders, 1995: 705-46. [IV]
23. Toryle DA, Potts DE, Sahn SA. The incidence and clinical correlates of parapneumonic effusions in pneumococcal pneumonia. Chest 1978;74:170-3. [III]
24. Light RW, Girard WM, Jenkinson SG, et al. Parapneumonic effusions. Am J Med 1980;69:507-12. [IIb]
25. Wang N. Anatomy of the pleura. Clin Chest Med 1998;19:229-40. [IV]
26. Agostini E, Zocchi L. Mechanical coupling and liquid exchanges in the pleural space. Clin Chest Med 1998;19:241-60. [IV]
27. American Thoracic Society. Management of nontuberculous empyema: a statement of the subcommittee on surgery. Am Rev Respir Dis 1962;935-6. [IV]
28. Kroegel C, Anthony VB. Immunobiology of pleural inflammation: potential implications for pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapy. Eur Respir J 1997;10:2411-8. [IV]
29. Good JT Jr, Taryle DA, Maulitz RM, et al. The diagnostic value of pleural fluid pH. Chest 1980;78:55-9. [III]
30. Sasse SA, Causing LA, Mulligan ME, et al. Serial pleural fluid analysis in a new experimental model of empyema. Chest 1996;109:1043-8. [IIb]
31. Potts DE, Taryle DA, Sahn SA. The glucose-pH relationship in parapneumonic effusions. Arch Intern Med 1978;138:1378-80. [IIb]
32. Potts DE, Levin DC, Sahn SA. Pleural fluid pH in parapneumonic effusions. Chest 1976;70:328-31. [IIb]
33. Idell S, Girard W, Koenig KB, et al. Abnormalities of pathways of fibrin turnover in the human pleural space. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:187-94. [IIb]
34. Sahn SA, Reller LB, Taryle DA, et al. The contribution of leukocytes and bacteria to the low pH of empyema fluid. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983;128:811-5. [IIb]
35. Hughes CE, Van Scoy RE. Antibiotic therapy of pleural empyema. Semin Respir Infect 1991;6:94-102. [IV]
36. Bartlett JG, Gorbach SL, Thadepalli H, et al. Bacteriology of empyema. Lancet 1974;338-40. [III]
37. Brook I, Frazier EH. Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of empyema: a retrospective review in two military hospitals. Chest 1993;103:1502-7. [III]
38. Ashbaugh DG. Empyema thoracis. Factors influencing morbidity and mortality. Chest 1991;99:1162-5. [III]
39. Landreneau RJ, Keenan RJ, Hazelrigg SR, et al. Thoracoscopy for empyema and hemothorax. Chest 1996;109:18-24. [III]
40. Varkey B, Rose HD, Kutty CP, et al. Empyema thoracis during a ten-year period. Analysis of 72 cases and comparison to a previous study (1952 to 1967). Arch Intern Med 1981;141:1771-6. [III]
41. Ali I, Unruh H. Management of empyema thoracis. Ann Thorac Surg 1990;50:355-9. [III]
42. Smith JA, Mullerworth MH, Westlake GW, et al. Empyema thoracis: 14-year experience in a teaching center. Ann Thorac Surg 1991;51:39-42. [III]
43. Sherman MM, Subramanian V, Berger RL. Management of thoracic empyema. Am J Surg 1977;133:474-9. [III]
44. Mandal AK, Thadepalli H. Treatment of spontaneous bacterial empyema thoracis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1987;94:414-8. [III]
45. Mavroudis C, Symmonds JB, Minagi H, et al. Improved survival in management of empyema thoracis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1981 ;82:49-57. [III]
46. Van Way C3, Narrod J, Hopeman A. The role of early limited thoracotomy in the treatment of empyema. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1988;96:436-9. [III]
47. Lemmer JH, Botham MJ, Orringer MB. Modern management of adult thoracic empyema. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1985;90:849-55. [III]
48. Lawrence DR, Ohri SK, Moxon RE, et al. Thoracoscopic debridement of empyema thoracis. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;64:1448-50. [III]
49. Civen R, Jousimies-Somer H, Marina M, et al. A retrospective review of cases of anaerobic empyema amd update of bacteriology. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20(Suppl):S224-9. [III]
50. Stavas J, van Sonnenberg E, Casola G, et al. Percutaneous drainage of infected and noninfected thoracic fluid collections. J Thorac Imaging 1987;2:80-7. [IV]
51. Eibenberger KL, Dock WI, Ammann ME, et al. Quantification of pleural effusions: sonography versus radiography. Radiology 1994;191:681-4. [IIb]
52. Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang DB, et al. Value of sonography in determining the nature of pleural effusion: analysis of 320 cases. AJR 1992;159:29-33. [III]
53. Kearney SE, Davies CW, Davies R, et al. Computerised tomography and ultrasound correlation in parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Radial 2000;55:542-7. [III]
54. Stark DD, Federle MP, Goodman PC, et al. Differentiating lung abscess and empyema: radiography and computed tomography. AJR 1983;141:163-7. [III]
55. Muller NL. Imaging of the pleura. Radiology 1993;186:297-309. [IV]
56. Aquino SL, Webb WR, Gushiken BJ. Pleural exudates and transudates: diagnosis with contrast-enhanced CT. Radiology 1994;192:803-8. [III]
57. Waite RJ, Carbonneau RJ, Balikian JP, et al. Parietal pleural changes in empyema: appearances at CT. Radiology 1990;175:145-50. [III]
58. Takasugi JE, Godwin JD, Teefey SA. The extrapleural fat in empyema: CT appearance. Br J Radiol 1991;64:580-3. [III]
59. Davies CWH, Kearney SE, Gleeson FV, et al. Predictors of outcome and long term survival in patients with pleural infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:1682-7. [III]
60. Poe RH, Marin MG, Israel RH, et al. Utility of pleural fluid analysis in predicting tube thoracostomy/decortication in parapneumonic effusions. Chest 1991;100:963-7. [III]
61. Himelman RB, Callen PW. The prognostic value of loculations in parapneumonic pleural effusions. Chest 1986;90:852-6. [III]
62. Light RW. A new classification of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Chest 1995;108:299-301. [IV]
63. Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri C, et al. Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1700-8. [Ia]
64. Mattison LE, Coppage L, Alderman DF, et al. Pleural effusions in the medical ICU: prevalence, causes, and clinical implications. Chest 1997;111:1018-23. [III]
65. Hamm H, Light RW. Parapneumonic effusion and empyema. Eur Respir J 1997;10:1150-6. [IV]
66. Lesho EP, Roth BJ. Is pH paper an acceptable, low-cost alternative to the blood gas analyzer for determining pleural fluid pH? Chest 1997;112:1291-2. [IIa]
67. Cheng D, Rodriguez M, Rogers J, et al. Comparison of pleural fluid pH values obtained using blood gas machine, pH meter, and pH indicator strip. Chest 1998;114:1368-72. [IIa]
68. Jimenez-Castro D, Diaz G, Perez-Rodriguez E, et al. Modification of pleural fluid pH by local anaesthesia. Chest 1999;116:399-402. [IIa]
69. Huang HC, Chang HY, Chen CW, et al. Predicting factors for outcome of tube thoracostomy in complicated parapneumonic effusion or empyema. Chest 1999;115:751-6. [III]
70. Cham CW, Haq SM, Rahamim J. Empyema thoracis: a problem with late referral? Thorax 1993;48:925-7. [IV]
71. Sasse S, Nguyen TK, Mulligan M, et al. The effects of early chest tube placement on empyema resolution. Chest 1997;111:1679-83. [Ib]
72. Neild JE, Eykyn SJ, Phillips I. Lung abscess and empyema. Q J Med 1985;57:875-82. [III]
73. Bartlett JG. Antibiotics in lung abscess. Semin Respir Infect 1991;6:103-11. [IV]
74. Minton EJ, Macfarlane JT. Antibiotic resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Thorax 1996;51 (Suppl 2):S45-50. [IV]
75. Wong CA, Donald F, Macfarlane JT. Streptococcus milleri pulmonary disease: a review and clinical description of 25 patients. Thorax 1995;50:1093-6. [III]
76. Jerng JS, Hsueh PR, Teng LJ, et al. Empyema thoracis and lung abscess caused by viridans streptococci. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:1508-14. [III]
77. Taryle DA, Good JT, Morgan EJ, et al. Antibiotic concentrations in human parapneumonic effusions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1981;7:171-7. [IIb]
78. Scaglione F. Serum protein binding and extravascular diffusion of methoxyimino cephalosporins. Time courses of cefotaxime and ceftriaxone in serum and pleural exudate. J Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;26(Suppl A):1-10. [IIb]
79. Shohet I, Yellin A, Meyerovitch J, et al. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy of gentamicin in an experimental pleural empyema rabbit model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987;31:982-5. [IIb]
80. Huchon G, Woodhead M. Guidelines for management of adult community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. European Study on Community-acquired Pneumonia (ESOCAP) Committee. Eur Respir J 1998;11:986-91. [IV]
81. Hammond JM, Polgieter PD, Hanslo D, et al. The etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of microorganisms in acute community-acquired lung abscess. Chest 1995;108:937-41. [III]
82. Shinzato T, Saito A. A mechanism of pathogenicity of "Streptococcus milleri group" in pulmonary infection: synergy with an anaerobe. J Med Microbiol 1994;40:118-23. [IIb]
83. Shinzato T, Saito A. The Streptococcus milleri group as a cause of pulmonary infections. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21 (Suppl 3):S238-43. [III]
84. Finegold SM, Wexler HM. Present studies of therapy for anaerobic infections. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23(Suppl 1):S9-14. [IV]
85. Kroboth FJ. Clinicoradiographic correlation with extent of Legionnaires' disease. AJR 1983;141:263-8. [IIb]
86. Randolph KA. Legionnaires' disease presenting with empyema. Chest 1979;75:404-6. [III]
87. Fine NL, Smith LR, Sheedy PF. Frequency of pleural effusions in mycoplasma and viral pneumonias. N Engl J Med 1970;283:790-3. [III]
88. Mansel JK, Rosenow ECI, Smith TF, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. Chest 1989;95:639-46. [III]
89. Silverman SG, Mueller PR, Saini S, et al. Thoracic empyema: management with image-guided catheter drainage. Radiology 1988;169:5-9. [III]
90. Crouch JD, Keagy BA, Delany DJ. "Pigtail" catheter drainage in thoracic surgery. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:174-5. [III]
91. van Sonnenberg E, Nakamoto SK, Mueller PR, et al. CT- and ultrasound-guided catheter drainage of empyemas after chest-tube failure. Radiology 1984;151:349-53. [III]
92. Hunnam GR, Flower CD. Radiologically-guided percutaneous catheter drainage of empyemas. Clin Radiol 1988;39:121-6. [III]
93. Ulmer JL, Choplin RH, Reed JC. Image-guided catheter drainage of the infected pleural space. J Thorac Imaging 1991;6:65-73. [IV]
94. Westcott JL. Percutaneous catheter drainage of pleural effusion and empyema. AJR 1985;144:1189-93. [III]
95. Merriam MA, Cronan JJ, Dorfman GS, et al. Radiographically guided percutaneous catheter drainage of pleural fluid collections. AJR 1988;151:1113-6. [III]
96. Klein JS, Schultz S, Heffner JE. Interventional radiology of the chest: image-guided percutaneous drainage of pleural effusions, lung abscess, and pneumothorax. AJR 1995;164:581-8. [IV]
97. Lee KS, Im JG, Kim YH, et al. Treatment of thoracic multiloculated empyemas with intracavitary urokinase: a prospective study. Radiology 1991;179:771-5. [III]
98. Munnell ER. Thoracic drainage. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;63:1497-502. [IV]
99. Miller KS, Sahn SA. Chest tubes. Indications, technique, management and complications. Chest 1987;91:258-64. [IV]
100. Moulton AL. Surgical definition of pleural peel. Radiology 1991;178:889-900. [IV]
101. Neff CC, van Sonnenberg E, Lawson DW, et al. CT follow-up of empyemas: pleural peels resolve after percutaneous catheter drainage. Radiology 1990;176:195-7. [III]
102. Robinson I.A, Moulton AL, Fleming WH, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytic treatment of multiloculated thoracic empyemas. Ann Thorac Surg 1994;57:803-13. [III]
103. Bilaceroglu. S, Cagerici. U, Cakan A. Management of complicated parapneumonic pleural effusions with image-guided drainage and intrapleural urokinase or streptokinase: a controlled randomized trial. Eur Respir J 1997;10:325S. [Ib]
104. Henke CA, Leatherman JW. Intrapleurally administered streptokinase in the treatment of acute loculated nonpurulent parapneumonic effusions. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:680-4. [III]
105. Aye RW, Froese DP, Hill LD. Use of purified streptokinase in empyema and hemothorax. Am J Surg 1991;161:560-2. [III]
106. Temes RT, Follis F, Kessler RM, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytics in management of empyema thoracis. Chest 1996;110:102-6. [III]
107. Ogirala RG, Williams MHJ. Streptokinase in a loculated pleural effusion. Effectiveness determined by site of instillation. Chest 1988;94:884-6. [III]
108. Willsie Ediger SK, Salzman G, Reisz G, et al. Use of intrapleural streptokinase in the treatment of thoracic empyema. Am J Med Sci 1990;300:296-300. [III]
109. Jerjes Sanchez C, Ramirez Rivera A, Elizalde JJ, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolysis with streptokinase as an adjunctive treatment in hemothorax and empyema: a multicenter trial. Chest 1996;109:1514-9. [III]
110. Chin NK, Lim TK. Controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase in the treatment of pleural empyema and complicated parapneumonic effusions. Chest 1997;111:275-9. [IIa]
111. Fraedrich G, Hofmann D, Effenhauser P, et al. Instillation of fibrinolytic enzymes in the treatment of pleural empyema. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982;30:36-8. [III]
112. Porter J, Banning AP. Intrapleural streptokinase. Thorax 1998;53:720. [III]
113. Taylor RFH, Rubens MB, Pearson MC, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase in the management of empyema. Thorax 1994;49:856-9. [III]
114. Mitchell ME, Alberts WM, Chandler KW, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase in management of parapneumonic effusions. Report of series and review of literature. J Fla Med Assoc 1989;76:1019-22. [III]
115. Roupie E, Bouabdallah K, Delclaux C, et al. Intrapleural administration of streptokinase in complicated purulent pleural effusion: a CT-guided strategy. Intensive Care Med 1996;22:1351-3. [III]
116. Laisaar T, Puttsepp E, Laisaar V. Early administration of intrapleural streptokinase in the treatment of multiloculated pleural effusions and pleural empyemas. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;44:252-6. [III]
117. Bouros D, Schiza S, Panagou P, et al. Role of streptokinase in the treatment of acute loculated parapneumonic pleural effusions and empyema. Thorax 1994;49:852-5. [III]
118. Godley PJ, Bell RC. Major hemorrhage following administration of intrapleural streptokinase. Chest 1984;86:486-7. [III]
119. Davies CWH, Lok S, Davies RJ. The systemic fibrinolytic activity of intrapleural streptokinase. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:328-30. [IIb]
120. Bergh NP, Ekroth R, Larsson S, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase in the treatment of haemothorax and empyema. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1977;11:265-8. [III]
121. Berglin E, Ekroth R, Teger Nilsson AC, et al. Intrapleural instillation of streptokinase. Effects on systemic fibrinolysis. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1981;29:124-6. [lIb]
122. Ryan JM, Boland GW, Lee MJ, et al. Intracavitary urokinase therapy as an adjunct to percutaneous drainage in a patient with a multiloculated empyema. AJR 1996;167:643-7. [III]
123. Park CS, Chung WM, Lim MK, et al. Transcatheter instillation of urokinase into loculated pleural effusion: analysis of treatment effect. AJR 1996;167:649-52. [III]
124. Cohen ML, Finch U. Transcatheter intrapleural urokinase for loculated pleural effusion. Chest 1994;105:1874-6. [III]
125. Pollak JS, Passik CS. Intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of loculated pleural effusions. Chest 1994;105:868-73. [III]
126. Bouros D, Schiza S, Tzanakis N, et al. Intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic pleural effusions and empyema. Eur Respir J 1996;9:1656-9. [III]
127. Moulton JS, Benkert RE, Weisiger KH, et al. Treatment of complicated pleural fluid collections with image- guided drainage and intracavitary urokinase. Chest 1995;108:1252-9. [III]
128. Moulton JS, Moore PT, Mencini RA. Treatment of loculated pleural effusions with transcatheter intracavitary urokinase. AJR 1989;153:941-5. [III]
129. Davies RJO, Traill ZC, Gleeson FV. Randomised controlled trial of intra-pleural streptokinase in community acquired pleural infection. Thorax 1997;52:416-21. [Ib]
130. Bouros D, Schiza S, Patsourakis G, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase versus urokinase in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions: a prospective, double-blind study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:291-5. [Ib]
131. Bouros D, Schiza S, Tzanakis N, et al. Intrapleural urokinase versus normal saline in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:37-42. [Ib]
132. Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar R, et al. A randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax 2002; 57; 343-7. [Ib]
133. Strange C, Allen ML, Harley R, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase in experimental empyema. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:962-6. [IIb]
134. Bouros D, Schiza S, Patsourakis G, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase versus urokinase in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:291-5. [Ib]
135. Jennings K. Antibodies to streptokinase. BMJ 1996;312:393-4. [IV]
136. Lynch M, Littler WA, Pentecost BL, et al. Immunoglobulin response to intravenous streptokinase in acute myocardial infarction. Br Heart J 1991;66:139-42. [IIb]
137. Patel S, Jalihal S, Dutka DP, et al. Streptokinase neutralisation litres up to 866 days after intravenous streptokinase for acute myocardial infarction. Br Heart J 1993;70:119-21. [III]
138. Jalihal S, Morris GK. Antistreptokinase litres after intravenous streptokinase. Lancet 1990;335:184-5. [IIb]
139. Elliott JM, Cross DB, Cederholm Williams SA, et al. Neutralizing antibodies to streptokinase four years after intravenous thrombolytic therapy. Am J Cardiol 1993;71:640-5. [IIb]
140. Buchalter MB, Suntharalingam G, Jennings I, et al. Streptokinase resistance: when might streptokinase administration be ineffective? Br Heart J 1992;68:449-53. [IIb]
141. Fears R, Ferres H, Glasgow E, et al. Monitoring of streptokinase resistance titre in acute myocardial infarction patients up to 30 months after giving streptokinase or anistreplase and related studies to measure specific antistreptokinase IgG. Br Heart J 1992;68:167-70. [IIb]
142. Lee HS, Cross S, Davidson R, et al. Raised levels of antistreptokinase antibody and neutralization titres from 4 days to 54 months after administration of streptokinase or anistreplase. Eur Heart J 1993;14:84-9. [IIb]
143. Alfageme I, Vazquez R. Ventricular fibrillation after intrapleural urokinase. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:352. [III]
144. Frye MD, Jarratt M, Sahn SA. Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure following intrapleural thrombolytic therapy for hemothorax. Chest 1994;105:1595-6. [III]
145. Light RW, Nguyen T, Mulligan ME, et al. The in vitro efficacy of varidase versus streptokinase or urokinase for liquefying thick purulent exudative material from loculated empyema. Lung 2000;178:13-18. [IIb]
146. Simpson G, Roomes D, Heron M. Effects of streptokinase and deoxyribonuclease on viscosity of human surgical and empyema pus. Chest 2000;117:1728-33. [IIb]
147. Naidich DP, Lee JJ, Garay SM, et al. Comparison of CT and fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the evaluation of bronchial disease. AJR 1987;148:1-7. [IIb]
148. Naidich DP, Harkin TJ. Airways and lung: correlation of CT with fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Radiology 1995;197:1-12. [IIb]
149. Millar AB, Boothroyd AE, Edwards D, et al. The role of computed tomography (CT) in the investigation of unexplained haemoptysis. Respir Med 1992;86:39-44. [III]
150. Woodring JH. Determining the cause of pulmonary atelectasis: a comparison of plain radiography and CT. AJR 1988;150:757-63. [III]
151. Pothula V, Krellenstein DJ. Early aggressive surgical management of parapneumonic empyemas. Chest 1994;105:832-6. [III]