Adolescent responses to TV beer ads and sports content/context: Gender and ethnic differences

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 108-122

  Slater, Michael D ^b   Rouner, Donna ^b   Domenech Rodriguez, Melanie ^a   Beauvais, Frederick ^b   Murphy, Kevin ^a   Van Leuven, James K ^b  

^a Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0037625871     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400109     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Lloyd D. Johnston, Patrick O'Malley, and Jerald G. Bachman, Smoking, Drinking, and Illicit Drug Use among American Secondary School Students, College Students, and Young Adults, 1975-1993, vol. 1: Secondary School Students, vol. 2: College Students and Young Adults, NIH Publication No. 94-3810 (Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1994).
2. Sharon C. Wilsnack and Richard W. Wilsnack, "Epidemiology of Women's Drinking," Journal of Substance Abuse 3 (1991): 133-57.
3. Alcohol consumption rates among Latino youth overall appear to be slightly lower than among Anglo youth. When these rates arc broken down by gender, however, researchers find that alcohol consumption rates are actually higher among Latino males than among Anglo males, but that Latina females drink less than Anglo females (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1990). Evidence suggests that the more acculturated Latino youth are, the more their alcohol use patterns appear to resemble Anglo norms; Raul Caetano, "Acculturation and Drinking Patterns among U.S. Hispanics," British Journal of Addictions 82 (July 1987): 789-99; Gerardo Marin, Fabio Sabogal, Regina Otero-Sabogal, and Elisco Perez-Stable, "Development of a Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics," Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9 (June 1987):183-205; Eugene R. Oetting and Frederick Beauvais, "Orthogonal Cultural Identification Theory: The Cultural Identification of Minority Adolescents," The International Journal of the Addictions 25 (1991): 655-85.
4. Alcohol consumption rates among Latino youth overall appear to be slightly lower than among Anglo youth. When these rates arc broken down by gender, however, researchers find that alcohol consumption rates are actually higher among Latino males than among Anglo males, but that Latina females drink less than Anglo females (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1990). Evidence suggests that the more acculturated Latino youth are, the more their alcohol use patterns appear to resemble Anglo norms; Raul Caetano, "Acculturation and Drinking Patterns among U.S. Hispanics," British Journal of Addictions 82 (July 1987): 789-99; Gerardo Marin, Fabio Sabogal, Regina Otero-Sabogal, and Elisco Perez-Stable, "Development of a Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics," Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9 (June 1987):183-205; Eugene R. Oetting and Frederick Beauvais, "Orthogonal Cultural Identification Theory: The Cultural Identification of Minority Adolescents," The International Journal of the Addictions 25 (1991): 655-85.
5. Alcohol consumption rates among Latino youth overall appear to be slightly lower than among Anglo youth. When these rates arc broken down by gender, however, researchers find that alcohol consumption rates are actually higher among Latino males than among Anglo males, but that Latina females drink less than Anglo females (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1990). Evidence suggests that the more acculturated Latino youth are, the more their alcohol use patterns appear to resemble Anglo norms; Raul Caetano, "Acculturation and Drinking Patterns among U.S. Hispanics," British Journal of Addictions 82 (July 1987): 789-99; Gerardo Marin, Fabio Sabogal, Regina Otero-Sabogal, and Elisco Perez-Stable, "Development of a Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics," Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9 (June 1987):183-205; Eugene R. Oetting and Frederick Beauvais, "Orthogonal Cultural Identification Theory: The Cultural Identification of Minority Adolescents," The International Journal of the Addictions 25 (1991): 655-85.
6. Charles K. Atkin, Kim Neuendorf, and Steven McDermott, "The Role of Alcohol Advertising in Excessive and Hazardous Drinking," Journal of Drug Education 13 (1983): 313-25;
7. P. P. Aitken, D. R. Eadie, D. S. Leathar, R. E. McNeill, and A. C. Scott, "Television Advertisements for Alcoholic Drinks Do Reinforce Underage Drinking," British Journal of the Addictions 83 (1988): 1399-1419;
8. Joel W. Grube and Lawrence Wallack, "Television Beer Advertising and Drinking Knowledge, Beliefs, and Intentions among Schoolchildren," American Journal of Public Health 84 (February 1994): 254-59.
9. "Alcohol and Sports: Mixed Messages and Double Standards," The Bottom Line, summer 1992, 15-19; Department of Health and Human Services, Surgeon General's Workshop on Drunk Driving: Proceedings, Washington D.C., Dec. 14-16, 1988 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1989); J. G. Mosher, "Alcohol Advertising and Public Health: An Urgent Call for Action," American Journal of Public Health 84 (February 1994): 180-81.
10. "Alcohol and Sports: Mixed Messages and Double Standards," The Bottom Line, summer 1992, 15-19; Department of Health and Human Services, Surgeon General's Workshop on Drunk Driving: Proceedings, Washington D.C., Dec. 14-16, 1988 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1989); J. G. Mosher, "Alcohol Advertising and Public Health: An Urgent Call for Action," American Journal of Public Health 84 (February 1994): 180-81.
11. "Alcohol and Sports: Mixed Messages and Double Standards," The Bottom Line, summer 1992, 15-19; Department of Health and Human Services, Surgeon General's Workshop on Drunk Driving: Proceedings, Washington D.C., Dec. 14-16, 1988 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1989); J. G. Mosher, "Alcohol Advertising and Public Health: An Urgent Call for Action," American Journal of Public Health 84 (February 1994): 180-81.
12. Michael D. Slater, Donna Rouner, Kevin Murphy, Frederick Beauvais, James Van Leuven, and Melanie M. Domenech-Rodriguez, "Adolescent Male Reactions to TV Beer Ads: The Effects of Sports Content and Programming Context," Journal of Studies on Alcohol 57 (July 1996): 425-33.
13. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
14. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Forewarning, Cognitive Responding, and Resistance to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (September 1977): 645-55; Donald F. Roberts and Nathan Maccoby, "Information Processing and Persuasion: Counterarguing Behavior," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. Peter Clarke (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1973), 269-307; Peter L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1983): 53-62.
15. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Forewarning, Cognitive Responding, and Resistance to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (September 1977): 645-55; Donald F. Roberts and Nathan Maccoby, "Information Processing and Persuasion: Counterarguing Behavior," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. Peter Clarke (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1973), 269-307; Peter L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1983): 53-62.
16. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, "Forewarning, Cognitive Responding, and Resistance to Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (September 1977): 645-55; Donald F. Roberts and Nathan Maccoby, "Information Processing and Persuasion: Counterarguing Behavior," in New Models for Mass Communication Research, ed. Peter Clarke (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1973), 269-307; Peter L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1983): 53-62.
17. However, a study of fifth- and sixth-grade schoolchildren found that boys were more familiar with beer advertising content than girls and were more likely to plan to drink as adults; Grube and Wallack, "Television Beer Advertising."
18. Kirk Hallahan, "Gender-Based Differences in Processing of Promotional Messages: A Test of Meyers-Levy's Selectivity Hypothesis" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Washington, DC, August, 1995)
19. James H. Frey and D. Stanley Eitzen, "Sport and Society," Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991): 503-22.
20. Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions."
21. The sports programming to which we refer, as discussed in methods, are the major college and professional sports on which most beer advertising appears. Sports programming featuring women athletes might have other effects. See the previous study for a more detailed review of context and content effects; Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions."
22. Melanie Domenech-Rodriguez, Michael D. Slater, and Frederick Beauvais, "Beer Advertising to Latino Youth: Effects of Spanish vs. English Language Targeting" in How the Media Reflect Who We Are, ed. Shirley Biagi and Marilyn Kern-Foxworth (Newbury Park, CA: Fox Grove, 1997), 205-211.
23. J. Manuel Casas, B. R. Wagenheim, Robert Banchero, and Joan Mendoza-Romero, "Hispanic Masculinity: Myth or Psychological Schema Meriting Clinical Consideration," Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 16 (August 1994): 315-31.
24. Robit Deshpande, Wayne D. Hoyer, and N. Donthu, "The Intensity of Ethnic Affiliation: A Study of the Sociology of Hispanic Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research 13 (September 1986): 214-20.
25. The stimuli were identical to those used in the earlier study, except that replacement sports programs were used. Unlike entertainment programs and ads, sports programs are dated within a year given that players are traded and that announcer comments reflect standings from a given year. While we wished to keep stimuli as identical as possible to that used in the original study, we concluded that using current sports events each year represented more similar stimuli than using the same sports programs that would be dated in the second year. See Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions."
26. An alternative high school for at-risk youth was included to maximize the diversity of the study population, and added 40 young people to the study, approximately balanced by ethnicity and gender. Analyses of variance provided no evidence of any systematic difference in responses to ads for these youth; they were therefore incorporated with the rest of the study population.
27. By population group, 36.7% of the Anglos and 43.5% of the Latinos, 41.4% of males and 38.4% of females, and 20.1% of junior high and 62.9% of senior high students reported having been drunk at least once. Compare to Eugene Oetting and Frederick Beauvais, "Adolescent Drug Use: Findings of National and Local Surveys," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 58 (1990): 385-94. The nearly identical alcohol use levels between males and females is consistent with national data regarding exposure to alcohol use, though males tend to drink more frequently. See Johnston, O'Malley, and Bachman, "Smoking, Drinking, and Illicit Drug Use."
28. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
29. John T. Cacioppo, S. G. Harkins, and Richard E. Petty, "The Nature of Attitudes, Cognitive Responses, and Their Relationships to Behavior," in Cognitive Responses in Persuasion, ed. Richard E. Petty, Thomas Ostrom, and Thomas Brock (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981), 31-54.
30. Leon Festinger and Nathan Maccoby, "On Resistance to Persuasive Communication," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 68 (1964): 359-67; Peter L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1983): 53-62.
31. Leon Festinger and Nathan Maccoby, "On Resistance to Persuasive Communication," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 68 (1964): 359-67; Peter L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising," Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1983): 53-62.
32. J. Cohen, "A Coefficient for Nominal Scales," Educational and Psychological Measurement 20 (1960): 37-46.
33. Oetting and Beauvais, "Adolescent Drug Use."
34. Gene V. Glass and Kenneth D. Hopkins, Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology, 2d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984).
35. Tests for violations of sphericity assumptions were nonsignificant, and Greenhouse-Geisser epsilons for various effects tested were consistently above .95, for these and other repeated measure ANOVAs that included the three-level factor. Another methodological issue concerns the impact of the relative over-representation of Latinos among the males in comparisons of males and females in this data set. This issue proved to be trivial. First, as noted, Latino ethnicity made little difference with respect to responses to messages in an analysis of main effects of ethnicity, and variance due to ethnicity was partitioned out in the ANOVA model. Second, we confirmed this by rerunning the analyses combining the Anglo male data set reported in Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions" with the present data set. Results reported here were essentially unchanged, although of course power was substantially higher.
36. For the counterarguing analysis there was a statistically significant main effect for gender, F(1,239)=4.30, p<.05. The main effect for gender, as mentioned above, is due to the greater counterarguing of beer ads by females than males (there were two beer ads and only one nonbeer ad, so females also totalled more counterarguments). We also should note that other various three-way interactions and incidental effects part of the full factorial model were tested and were not found significant for these analyses. In addition, we also compared reactions to the ad types between participants who viewed one of the nine situation comedies versus those who saw one of the three action-type entertainment programs. No main effects or interactions of entertainment program type with ad type or gender were statistically significant; it should be noted, though, that power to detect effects of this type was lower than for other effects, since entertainment program type was a between-subjects factor.
37. It should be noted that these correlational relationships were not analyzed in the earlier study.
38. These analyses were also run on the combined data sets (N=401) and results again did not approach statistical significance, suggesting the lack of effect was not a function of lack of power.
39. Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions."
40. Slater et al., "Adolescent Male Reactions."
41. Michael D. Slater, Donna Rouner, Kevin Murphy, Frederick Beauvais, James Van Leuven, and Melanie Domenech-Rodriguez, "Adolescent Counterarguing of TV Beer Advertisements: Evidence for the Effectiveness of Alcohol Education and Critical Viewing Discussions," Journal of Drug Education 26 (1996): 141-56.
42. Domenech-Rodriguez, Slater, and Beauvais, "Beer and Non-beer Advertising to Latino Youth."