A review of the long-term effects of post-harvest silviculture on vertebrate wildlife, and predictive models, with an emphasis on boreal forests in Ontario, Canada

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 177, Issue 1-3, 2003, Pages 441-469

  Thompson, Ian D ^a   Baker, James A ^b   Ter Mikaelian, Michael ^b  

^a LAURENTIAN FORESTRY CENTRE   (Canada)

^b ONTARIO FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Amphibians; Biodiversity; Birds; Boreal forest; Intensive forest management; Mammals; Ontario

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; FERTILIZERS; FIBERS; HARVESTING;

VERTEBRATES SPECIES;

FORESTRY;

BOREAL FOREST; SILVICULTURE; VERTEBRATE; YIELD;

BIODIVERSITY; FIBERS; FORESTS; HARVESTING; SILVICULTURE;

CANADA; ONTARIO;

AMPHIBIA; ANIMALIA; AVES; CONIFEROPHYTA; INSECTA; MAMMALIA; PICIDAE; PICOIDES; PICOIDES ARCTICUS; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 0037424919     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00453-X     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Ahti, T., Hepburn, R.L., 1967. Preliminary studies on woodland caribou range, especially on lichen stands, in Ontario. Ontario Department of Lands and Forest Research Report (Wildlife), vol. 74, 134 pp.
2. Andren, H., 1994. Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat: a review. Oikos 71, 355-366.
3. Angelstam, P., 1990. Factors determining the composition and persistence of local woodpecker assemblages in taiga forest in Sweden - a case for landscape ecological studies. In: Carlson, A., Aulén, G. (Eds.), Conservation and Management of Woodpecker Populations. Department of Wildlife Ecology Report 17, Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Uppsala, pp. 147-164.
4. Angelstam, P., 1992. Changes in forest landscapes and bird conservation in northern Europe. Acta Int. Ornith. Congr. 20, 2292-2297.
5. Aubry, K.B., 2000. Amphibians in managed, second-growth Douglas-fir forests. J. Wildl. Manage. 64, 1041-1052.
6. Baguette, M., Deceuninck, B., Mueller, Y., 1994. Effect of spruce afforestation on bird community dynamics in a native broadleaved forest area. Acta Oecol. 15, 275-288.
7. Baker, W.L., 1995. Long-term response of disturbance landscapes to human intervention and global change. Landsc. Ecol. 10, 143-159.
8. Baker, J.A., Clark, T., Thompson, I.D., 1996. Boreal mixedwoods as wildlife habitat: observations, questions, and concerns. In: Smith, C.R., Crook, G.W. (Eds.), Advancing Boreal Mixedwood Management in Ontario. Natural Resources Canada and Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Canada, Fo18-40, pp. 41-52.
9. Banfield, A.W.F., 1974. The Mammals of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences and University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont., Canada, p. 438.
10. Barber, D.R., Martin, T.E., Melchiors, M.A., Thill, R.E., Wigley, T.B., 2001. Nesting success of birds in different silvicultural treatments in southeastern US pine forests. Conserv. Biol. 15, 196-207.
11. Bell, F.W., Pitt, D.G., Irvine, M., Parker, W.C., Buse, L.J., Stocker, N., Towill, W.D., Chen, H., Pinto, F., Brown, K., DeYoe, D., McDonough, T., Smith, G., Weber, M., 2000. Intensive Forest Management in Ontario: Summary of a 1999 Science Workshop. Science and Development Transfer Series 003, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Canada, 86 pp.
12. Bennett, S.H., Gibbons, J.W., Glanville, J., 1980. Terrestrial activity, abundance, and diversity of amphibians in differently managed forest types. Am. Midl. Nat. 103, 412-416.
13. Bowman, J.C., Sleep, D., Forbes, G.J., Edwards, M., 2000. The association of small mammals with coarse woody debris at log and stand scales. For. Ecol. Manage. 129, 119-124.
14. Brawn, J.D., Robinson, S.K., Thompson, F.R., 2001. The role of disturbance in the ecology and conservation of birds. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 32, 251-276.
15. Brumelis, G., Carleton, T.J., 1991. The vegetation of post-logged black spruce lowlands in central Canada. II. Understory plant cover. J. Appl. Ecol. 26, 321-339.
16. Bunnell, F.L., Kremsater, L.L., Wind, E., 1999. Managing to sustain vertebrate richness in forests of the Pacific Northwest: relationships within stands. Environ. Rev. 7, 97-146.
17. Buskirk, S.W., Forrest, S.C., Raphael, M.G., Harlow, H.J., 1989. Winter resting site ecology of marten in the central Rocky Mountains. J. Wildl. Manage. 53, 191-196.
18. Cadman, M.D., Eagles, P.F.J., Helleiner, F.M., 1987. Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo, p. 617.
19. Carey, A.B., 2000. Effects of new forest management strategies on squirrel populations. Ecol. Appl. 10, 248-257.
20. Carey, J.B., Johnson, M.L., 1995. Small mammals in managed, naturally young- and old-growth forests. Ecol. Appl. 5, 336-352.
21. Carleton, T.J., 2000. Vegetation responses to the managed forest landscape of central and northern Ontario. In: Perera, A.H., Euler, D.L., Thompson, I.D. (Eds.), Ecology of a Managed Terrestrial Landscape: Patterns and Processes of Forest Landscapes in Ontario. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 178-197.
22. Christian, D.P., Hoffman, W., Hanowski, J.M., Niemi, G.J., Beyea, J., 1998. Bird and mammal diversity on woody biomass plantations in North America. Biomass Bioenergy 14, 395-402.
23. Chritton, C.A., 1988. Effects of thinning a loblolly pine plantation on nongame bird populations in east Texas. M.Sc. Thesis, Austin State University, Austin, TX.
24. Clough, G.C., 1987. Relations of small mammals to forest management in northern Maine. Can. Field Nat. 101, 40-48.
25. Clout, M.N., Gaze, P.D., 1984. Effects of plantation forestry on birds in New Zealand. J. Appl. Ecol. 21, 795-815.
26. Connor, E.F., Courtney, A.C., Yoder, J.M., 2000. Individuals-area relationships: the relationship between animal population density and area. Ecology 81, 734-748.
27. DeAngelis, D.L., Mulholland, P.J., Palumbo, A.V., Steinman, A.D., Huston, M.A., Elwood, J.W., 1989. Nutrient dynamics and food-web stability. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20, 71-95.
28. De Bellefeuille, S., Gagne, N., Belanger, L., Huot, J., Cimon, A., Dery, S., Jette, J.P., 2001. Effets de trois scénarios de regeneration de la sapinière boréale sur les passereaux nicheurs, les petits mammifères et le lièvre d'Amerique. Can. J. For. Res. 31, 1312-1325.
29. De Graaf, R.M., Hestbeck, J.B., Yamasaki, M., 1998. Associations between breeding bird abundance and stand structure in the White Mountains, New Hampshire and Maine. For. Ecol. Manage. 103, 217-233.
30. DeMaynadier, P.G., Hunter, M.L., 1995. The relationship between forest management and amphibian ecology: a review of the North American literature. Environ. Rev. 3, 230-261.
31. DeMaynadier, P.G., Hunter, M.L., 1997. Effects of silvicultural edges on the distribution and abundance of amphibians in Maine. Conserv. Biol. 12, 340-352.
32. DeMaynadier, P.G., Hunter, M.L., 2000. Forest canopy closure and juvenile emigration by pool-breeding amphibians in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 63, 441-450.
33. Deuser, R.D., Shugart, H.H., 1978. Microhabitats in a forest-floor small mammal fauna. Ecology 59, 89-98.
34. Dickson, J.G., Thompson, F.R., Conner, R.N., Franzreb, K.E., 1993. Effects of silviculture on neotropical migratory birds in central and southeastern oak pine forests. In: Finch, D.M., Stangel, P.W. (Eds.), Status and Management of Neotropical Migratory Birds. US Forest Service General Technical Report RM-229, pp. 374-385
35. Dobesberger, E.J., 1998. Stochastic simulation of growth loss in thinned balsam fir stands defoliated by the spruce budworm in Newfoundland. Can. J. For. Res. 28, 703-710.
36. Drapeau, P., Leduc, A., Giroux, J.-F., Savard, J.-P., Bergeron, Y., Vickery, W.L., 2000. Landscape-scale disturbances and changes in bird communities of boreal mixedwood forests. Ecol. Monogr. 70, 423-444.
37. Duvall, M.D., Grigal, D.F., 1999. Effects of timber harvesting on coarse woody debris in red pine forests across the Great Lakes States, USA. Can. J. For. Res. 29, 1916-1934.
38. Edenius, L., Elmberg, J., 1996. Landscape level effects of modern forestry on bird communities in northern Swedish boreal forests. Landsc. Ecol. 11, 325-338.
39. Eggestad, M., Enge, E., Hjeljord, O., Sahlgaard, V., 1988. Glyphosate application in forest- ecological aspects. VIII. The effect on black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) summer habitat. Scand. J. For. Res. 3, 129-135.
40. Ehnes, J.W., Shay, J.M., 1995. Natural recovery of burnt and logged plant communities in the Lake Winnipeg East Forest Section. Canada-Manitoba Partnerships Agreement No. 1992/93-5009, Canada Forest Service, Edmonton, Alta., p. 138.
41. Elkie, P.C., Rempel, R.S., 2001. Detecting scales of pattern in boreal forest landscapes. For. Ecol. Manage. 147, 253-261.
42. Enns, K.A., 1994. Effects of mechanical site preparation on wildlife in British Columbia. Forest Research and Development Agreement Report 218.
43. Erskine, A.J., 1977. Birds of Boreal Canada. Canada Wildlife Service Report Series No. 41, Ottawa, Ont., Canada, 71 pp.
44. Eschholz, W.E., Servello, F.A., Griffith, B., Raymond, K.S., Krohn, W.S., 1996. Winter use of glyphosate-treated clearcuts by moose in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 60, 764-769.
45. Estades, C.F., Temple, S.A., 1999. Deciduous-forest bird communities in a fragmented landscape dominated by exotic pine plantation. Ecol. Appl. 9, 573-585.
46. Frelich, L.E., Lorimer, C.G., 1985. Current and predicted long-term effects of deer browsing in hemlock forests in Michigan, USA. Biol. Conserv. 34, 99-120.
47. Gjerde, I., Saetersdal, M., 1997. Effects on avian diversity of introducing spruce plantations in the native pine forests of western Norway. Biol. Conserv. 79, 241-250.
48. Gluck, M.J., Rempel, R.S., 1996. Structural characteristics of post-wildfire and clearcut landscapes. Environ. Monit. Assess. 39, 435-450.
49. Haapenen, A., 1965. Bird fauna of the Finnish forests in relation to forest succession. Anal. Zool. Fenn. 2, 231-263.
50. Hakkarainen, H., Korpimaki, E., Koivunen, V., Kurki, S., 1997. Boreal owl responses to forest management: a review. J. Raptor Res. 31, 125-128.
51. Hansen, A.J., Spies, T.A., Swanson, F.J., Ohmann, J.L., 1991. Conserving biodiversity in managed forests. Bioscience 41, 382-392.
52. Hansen, A.J., McComb, W.C., Vega, R., Raphael, M.G., Hunter, M., 1995. Bird habitat relationships in natural and managed forests in the West Cascades of Oregon. Ecol. Appl. 5, 555-569.
53. Hanski, I., Moilanen, A., Gyllenberg, M., 1996. Minimum viable metapopulation size. Am. Nat. 147, 527-541.
54. Hargis, C.D., McCullough, D.R., 1984. Winter diet and habitat selection of marten in Yosemite National Park. J. Wildl. Manage. 48, 140-146.
55. Hartley, M.J., 2002. Rationale and methods for conserving biodiversity in plantation forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 155, 81-95.
56. Hayward, G.D., Hayward, P.H., Garton, E.O., 1993. Ecology of boreal owls in the northern Rocky Mountains. Wildl. Monogr. 124, 59.
57. Hearnden, K.W., Millson, S.V., Wilson, W.C., 1992. A report on the status of forest regeneration: Ontario independent forest audit. Unpublished, available from: Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Canada, 117 pp.
58. Hector, A., Joshi, J., Lawlor, S.P., Spehn, E.M., Wilby, A., 2001. Conservation implications of the link between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Oecologia 129, 624-628.
59. Henry, S.E., Ruggiero, L.F., 1993. Den use by and kit development of marten in Wyoming. In: Thompson, I.D. (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Union Game Biology Conference, vol. XXI, pp. 233-237.
60. Hjeljord, O., Sahlgaard, V., Enge, E., Eggestad, M., Gronvold, S., 1988. Glyphosate application in forests - ecological aspects. VII. The effect on mountain hare use of a forest plantation. Scand. J. For. Res. 3, 123-127.
61. Holling, C.S., 1992a. The role of insects in structuring the boreal landscape. In: Shugart, H.H., Leemans, R., Bonan, G.B. (Eds.), A Systems Analysis of the Global Boreal Forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 170-191.
62. Holling, C.S., 1992b. Cross-scale morphology, geometry, and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecol. Monogr. 62, 447-502.
63. Imbeau, L., Savard, J.-P., Gagnon, R., 1999. Comparing bird assemblages in successional black spruce stands originating from fire and logging. Can. J. Zool. 77, 1850-1860.
64. Innes, D.G.L., Bendell, J.F., Naylor, B.J., Smith, B.A., 1990. High densities of the masked shrew, Sorex cinereus, in jack pine plantations in northern Ontario. Am. Midl. Nat. 124, 330-341.
65. Johnson, K.H., Vogt, K.A., Clark, H.J., Schmitz, O.J., Vogt, D.J., 1996. Biodiversity and the productivity and stability of ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11, 372-377.
66. Jung, T.S., Thompson, I.D., Titman, R.D., Applejohn, A.P., 1999. Habitat selection by forest bats in relation to mixedwood stand types and structure in central Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 63, 1306-1319.
67. Kimball, A.J., Hunter, M.L., 1990. Intensive silviculture. In: Hunter, M.L. (Ed.), Wildlife, Forests, and Forestry. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 200-234.
68. Kirk, D.A., Hobson, K.A., 2001. Bird-habitat relationships in jack pine boreal forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 147, 217-243.
69. Kirk, D.A., Naylor, B.J., 1996. Habitat requirements of the pileated woodpecker with special reference to Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, South Central Science and Technology Station, Technical Report No. 46, 49 pp.
70. Lamothe, L., 1980. Birds of the Araucaria pine plantations and natural forests near Bulolo, New Guinea. Corella 4, 127-131.
71. Land, D., Marion, W.R., O'Meara, T.E., 1989. Snag availability and cavity nesting birds in slash pine plantations. J. Wildl. Manage. 53, 1165-1171.
72. Lautenschlager, R.A., 1993. Response of wildlife to forest herbicide application in northern coniferous ecosystems. Can. J. For. Res. 23, 2286-2299.
73. Lavsund, S., 1981. Moose as a problem in Swedish forestry. Alces 17, 165-179.
74. Lindenmayer, D.B., Cunningham, R.B., Pope, M.L., 1999. A large-scale experiment to examine the effects of landscape context and habitat fragmentation on mammals. Biol. Conserv. 88, 387-403.
75. Loreau, M., 2000. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: recent theoretical advances. Oikos 91, 3-17.
76. Magura, T., Tothmeresz, B., Bordan, Z., 2000. Effects of nature management practice on carabid assemblages (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in a non-native plantation. Biol. Conserv. 93, 95-102.
77. Martell, A.M., 1981. Food habits of southern red-backed voles (Clethrionomys gapperi) in northern Ontario. Can. Field Nat. 95, 325-328.
78. Martell, A.M., 1983. Changes in small mammal communities after logging. Can. J. Zool. 61, 970-980.
79. Martell, A.M., Radvanyi, A., 1977. Changes in small mammal populations following clearcutting of northern Ontario black spruce. Can. Field Nat. 91, 41-46.
80. MacArthur, R.H., MacArthur, J.W., 1961. On bird species diversity. Ecology 42, 594-598.
81. MacDonald, J.E., 1965. A bird census in red pine plantations and mixed stands in Kirkwood Township, Ontario. Can. Field Nat. 79, 21-25.
82. McLaren, M.A., Thompson, I.D., Baker, J.A., 1998. Selection of vertebrate wildlife indicators for monitoring sustainable forest management in Ontario. For. Chron. 74, 241-248.
83. Mikusinski, G., Angelstam, P., 1997. European woodpeckers and anthropogenic habitat change: a review. Vogelwelt 118, 277-283.
84. Miller, G.R., Kinnaird, J.W., Cummins, R.P., 1982. Liability of saplings to browsing on a red deer range in the Scottish Highlands. J. Appl. Ecol. 19, 941-951.
85. Monkkonen, M., Welsh, D.A., 1994. A biogeographical hypothesis on the effects of human-caused landscape changes in the forest bird communities of Europe and North America. Anal. Zool. Fenn. 31, 61-70.
86. Moore, S.E., Allen, H.L., 1999. Plantation forestry. In: Hunter, M.L. (Ed.), Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 400-433.
87. Morrison, M.L., 1992. Bird abundance in forests managed for timber and wildlife. Biol. Conserv. 60, 127-134.
88. Moses, R.A., Boutin, S., 2001. The influence of clearcut logging and residual leave material on small mammal populations in aspen-dominated boreal mixedwoods. Can. J. For. Res. 31, 483-495.
89. Moss, D., 1978. Song-bird populations in forestry plantations. Quart. J. For. 72, 5-13.
90. Naylor, B.J., Bendell, J.F., 1983. Influence of habitat diversity on the abundance and diversity of small mammals in jack pine forests in Ontario. In: Wein, R.W., Riewe, R.R., Methven, I.R. (Eds.), Resources and Dynamics of the Boreal Zone. Assoc. Can. Univ. Northern Studies, Ottawa, Ont., Canada, pp. 295-307.
91. Nilsson, S., 1979. Effect of forest management on the breeding bird community in southern Sweden. Biol. Conserv. 16, 135-143.
92. Newton, M., Cole, E.C., Lautenschlager, R.A., White, D.E., McCormack, M.L., 1989. Browse availability after conifer release in Maine's spruce-fir forests. J. Wildl. Manage. 53, 643-649.
93. Nordyke, K.A., Buskirk, S.W., 1991. Southern red-backed vole populations in relation to stand succession and old growth character in the central Rocky Mountains. Can. Field Nat. 105, 330-334.
94. Norton, D.A., 1998. Indigenous biodiversity conservation and plantation forestry: options for the future. New Zealand For. 43, 34-39.
95. Perera, A.H., Baldwin, D.J.B., 2000. Spatial patterns in the managed forest landscape of Ontario. In: Perera, A.H., Euler, D.L., Thompson, I.D. (Eds.), Ecology of a Managed Terrestrial Landscape: Patterns and Processes of Forest Landscapes in Ontario. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 74-99.
96. Peterken, G.F., Ausherman, D., Buchenau, M., Forman, R.T., 1992. Old growth conservation within British upland conifer plantations. Forestry 65, 125-144.
97. Pimm, S.L., 1991. The Balance of Nature? University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
98. Pimm, S.L., Russell, G.J., Gittleman, J.L., Brooks, T.M., 1995. The future of biodiversity. Science 269, 347-350.
99. Plosz, C., 1994. Bird species richness in managed coniferous woodlots in southern Ontario. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont., Canada.
100. Potvin, F., Belanger, L., Lowell, K., 2000. Marten habitat selection in a clearcut boreal landscape. Conserv. Biol. 14, 844-857.
101. Pough, F.H., Smith, E.M., Rhodes, D.H., Collazo, A., 1987. The abundance of salamanders in forest stands with different histories of disturbance. For. Ecol. Manage. 20, 1-9.
102. Raymond, K.S., Servello, F.A., Griffith, B., Eschholz, W.E., 1996. Winter foraging ecology of moose on glyphosate-treated clearcuts in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 80, 753-763.
103. Repenning, R.W., Labinsky, R.F., 1985. Effects of even-age timber management on bird communities of the longleaf pine forest in northern Florida. J. Wildl. Manage. 49, 1088-1098.
104. Rempel, R.S., Elkie, P.C., Rodgers, A.R., Gluck, M.J., 1997. Timber-management and natural-disturbance effects on moose habitat: landscape evaluation. J. Wildl. Manage. 61, 517-524.
105. Rochelle, J.A., Bunnell, F.L., 1979. Plantation management and vertebrate wildlife. In: Malcolm, D.C., Atterson, J. (Eds.), The Ecology of Managed Forest Plantations. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Edinburgh, UK, pp. 389-411.
106. Rosenfield, R.N., Bielefeldt, J., Sonsthagen, S.A., Booms, T.L., 2000. Comparable reproductive success at conifer plantation and non-plantation nest sites for Cooper's hawks in Wisconsin. Wils. Bull. 112, 417-421.
107. Ruggiero, L.F., Aubry, K.B., Carey, A.B., Huff, M.H., 1991. Wildlife and vegetation of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-285, 533 pp.
108. Russell, K.R., Van Lear, D.H., Guynn, D.C., 1999. Prescribed fire effects on herpetofauna: review and management implications. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 27, 374-384.
109. Schaefer, J.A., Pruitt, W.O., 1991. Fire and woodland caribou in southeastern Manitoba. Wildl. Monogr. 116, 39.
110. Setterington, M.A., Thompson, I.D., Montevecchi, W.A., 2000. Woodpecker abundance and habitat use in mature balsam fir forests in Newfoundland. J. Wildl. Manage. 64, 335-345.
111. Siitonen, J., Martikainen, P., Puntilla, P., Rauh, J., 2000. Coarse woody debris and stand characteristics in mature managed and old-growth boreal mesic forests in southern Finland. For. Ecol. Manage. 128, 211-226.
112. Simard, J.H., 2001. Habitat selection, ecological energetics, and the effects of changes in white pine forests on breeding red crossbills in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario. M.Sc. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Que., Canada, p. 130.
113. Sippola, A.L., Siitonen, J., Kallio, R., 1998. Amount and quality of coarse woody debris in natural and managed coniferous forests near the timberline in Finnish Lapland. Scand. J. For. Res. 13, 204-214.
114. Stelfox, J.G., Cormack, R.G.H., 1962. Effects of clearcut logging on wild ungulates in the central Albertan foothills. For. Chron. 38, 94-107.
115. Stelfox, J.G., Lynch, G.M., McGillis, J.R., 1976. Effects of clearcut logging on wild ungulates in the central Albertan foothills. For. Chron. 52, 65-70.
116. Su, Q., MacLean, D.A., Needham, T.D., 1996. The influence of hardwood content on balsam fir defoliation by spruce budworm. Can. J. For. Res. 26, 1620-1628.
117. Sullivan, T.P., 1985. Effects of glyphosate on selected species of wildlife. In: Grossbard, E., Atkinson, D. (Eds.), The Herbicide Glyphosate. Butterworths, London, UK, pp. 186-199.
118. Sullivan, T.P., Moses, R.A., 1986. Red squirrel populations in natural and managed stands of lodgepole pine. J. Wildl. Manage. 50, 595-601.
119. Sullivan, T.P., Sullivan, D.S., 1982. Responses of small mammal populations to a forest herbicide application in a 20-year-old conifer plantation. J. Appl. Ecol. 19, 95-106.
120. Sullivan, T.P., Sullivan, D.S., Lautenschlager, R.A., Wagner, R.G., 1997. Long-term influence of glyphosate herbicide on demography and diversity of small mammal communities in coastal coniferous forest. Northwest Sci. 71, 6-17.
121. Sullivan, T.P., Lautenschlager, R.A., Wagner, R.G., 1999. Clearcutting and burning of northern spruce-fir forests: implications for small mammal communities. J. Appl. Ecol. 36, 327-344.
122. Temple, S.A., Mossman, M.J., Ambuel, B., 1979. The ecology and management of avian communities in mixed hardwood-conifer forests. In: DeGraaf, R.M., Evans, K.E. (Eds.), Management of Northcentral and Northeast Forests for Nongame. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northcentral Research Station, General Technical Report NC-51, pp. 132-151.
123. Thomas, J.W., Anderson, R.G., Maser, C., Bull, E.L., 1979. Wildlife habitats in managed forests of the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agricultural Handbook, 553 pp.
124. Thompson, I.D., 1988. Moose damage to pre-commercially thinned balsam fir stands in Newfoundland. Alces 24, 56-61.
125. Thompson, I.D., 1994. Marten populations in uncut and logged boreal forests in Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 58, 272-280.
126. Thompson, I.D., 2000. Forest vegetation of Ontario: factors influencing landscape change. In: Perera, A.H., Euler, D.L., Thompson, I.D. (Eds.), Ecology of a Managed Terrestrial Landscape: Patterns and Processes of Forest Landscapes in Ontario. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 30-53.
127. Thompson, I.D., Colgan, P.W., 1991. Prey choice by marten during a decline in prey abundance. Oecologia 83, 443-451.
128. Thompson, I.D., Curran, W.J., 1993. A reexamination of moose damage to balsam fir - white birch forests in central Newfoundland: 27 years later. Can. J. For. Res. 23, 1388-1395.
129. Thompson, I.D., Curran, W.J., 1995. Habitat suitability for marten of second-growth balsam fir stands in Newfoundland. Can. J. Zool. 73, 2059-2064.
130. Thompson, I.D., Hogan, H.A., Montevecchi, W.A., 1999. Avian communities of mature balsam fir forests in Newfoundland: age-dependence and implications for timber harvesting. Condor 101, 311-323.
131. Ure, D.C., Maser, C., 1982. Mycophagy of red-backed voles in Oregon and Washington. Can. J. Zool. 60, 3307-3313.
132. Virkkala, R., 1991. Population trends of forest birds in a Finnish Lapland landscape of large habitat blocks: consequences of stochastic environmental variation or regional habitat alteration? Biol. Conserv. 56, 223-240.
133. Voigt, D.R., Baker, J.A, Rempel, R.S., Thompson, I.D., 2000. Forest vertebrate response to landscape-level changes in Ontario. In: Perera, A.H., Euler, D.L., Thompson, I.D. (Eds.), Ecology of a Managed Terrestrial Landscape: Patterns and Processes of Forest Landscapes in Ontario. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 198-234.
134. Wedeles, C.H.R., Van Damme, L., 1995. Effects of clearcutting and alternative silvicultural systems on wildlife in Ontario's boreal mixedwoods. NODA/NFP Technical Report TR-19, Canada Forest Service, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Canada, p. 56.
135. Welsh, H.H., Droege, S., 2001. A case for using Plethodontid salamanders for monitoring biodiversity and ecosystem integrity of North American forests. Conserv. Biol. 15, 558-569.
136. Welsh, C.J.E., Healy, W.M., 1993. Effect of even-aged timber management on bird species diversity and composition in northern hardwoods of New Hampshire. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 21, 143-154.
137. Welsh, D.A., Lougheed, S.C., 1996. Relationship of bird community structure and species distributions to two environmental gradients in the northern boreal forest. Ecography 19, 194-208.
138. Wigley, T.B., Baughman, W.M., Dorcas, M.E., Gerwin, J.A., Gibbons, J.W., Guynn, D.C., Lancia, R.A., Leiden, Y.A., Mitchell, M.S., Russell, K.R., 2000. Contributions of intensively managed forests to the sustainability of wildlife communities in the south. In: Sustaining southern forests: the science of forest assessment. USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Research Assessment. Available on line at: http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/sustain/conf/.
139. Wilkins, R.N., Peterson, N.P., 2000. Factors related to amphibian occurrence and abundance in headwater streams draining second-growth Douglas-fir forests in southwestern Washington. For. Ecol. Manage. 139, 79-91.
140. Willson, M.F., Comet, T.A., 1996. Bird communities of northern forests: ecological correlates of diversity and abundance in the understory. Condor 98, 350-362.
141. Yamamura, Y., 2002. Biodiversity and stability of herbivore populations: the influence of the spatial sparseness of food plants. Popul. Ecol. 44, 33-40.