Role of the gut in the course of severe acute pancreatitis

Pancreas

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 122-129

  Ammori, Basil J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b MANCHESTER ROYAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Acute pancreatitis; Bacterial translocation; Endotoxemia; Gut; Intestinal permeability; Pathogenesis

Indexed keywords

ACUTE PANCREATITIS; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION; BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; CAUSE OF DEATH; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; ENDOTOXEMIA; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; INTESTINE ABSORPTION; INTESTINE MUCOSA; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MORTALITY; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; PANCREAS NECROSIS; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEPSIS;

ANIMALS; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIA; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; INTESTINES; NEUTROPHILS; PANCREATITIS, ACUTE NECROTIZING; PERMEABILITY;

EID: 0037373696     PISSN: 08853177     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00006676-200303000-00006     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. McKay CJ, Evans S, Sinclair M, et al. High early mortality rate from acute pancreatitis in Scotland, 1984-1995. Br J Surg 1999;86:1302-5.
2. Eland IA, Sturkenboom MJ, Wilson JH, et al. Incidence and mortality of acute pancreatitis between 1985 and 1995. Scand J Gastroenterol 2000;35:1110-6.
3. Toh SK, Phillips S, Johnson CD. A prospective audit against national standards of the presentation and management of acute pancreatitis in the south of England. Gut 2000;46:239-43.
4. Larvin M, McMahon MJ. Apache-II score for assessment and monitoring of acute pancreatitis. Lancet 1989;22:201-5.
5. Bradley EL III. A clinically based classification system for acute pancreatitis. Arch Surg 1993;128:586-90.
6. Brisinda G, Maria G, Ferrante A, et al. Evaluation of prognostic factors in patients with acute pancreatitis. Hepatogastroenterology 1999;46:1990-7.
7. Mann DV, Hershman MJ, Hittinger R, et al. Multicenter audit of death from acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1994;81:890-3.
8. Beger HG, Bittner R, Block S, et al. Bacterial contamination of pancreatic necrosis - a prospective clinical study. Gastroenterology 1986;91:433-8.
9. Bradley EL III, Allen K. A prospective longitudinal study of observation versus surgical intervention in the management of necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg 1991;161:19-24.
10. Gloor B, Muller CA, Worni M, et al. Pancreatic infection in severe pancreatitis: the role of fungus and multiresistant organisms. Arch Surg 2001;136:592-6.
11. Marshall JC, Christou NV, Meakins JL. The gastrointestinal tract: the "undrained abscess" of multiple organ failure. Ann Surg 1993;218:111-9.
12. Swank GM, Deitch EA. Role of the gut in multiple organ failure: bacterial translocation and permeability changes. World J Surg 1996;20:411-7.
13. Meakins JL, Marshall JC. The gastrointestinal tract: the "motor" of multiple organ failure. Arch Surg 1986;121:197.
14. Ryan CM, Schmidt J, Lewandrowski K, et al. Gut macromolecular permeability in pancreatitis correlates with severity of disease in rats. Gastroenterology 1993;104:890-5.
15. Ammori BJ, Leeder PC, King RFGJ, et al. Early increase in intestinal permeability in patients with severe acute pancreatitis: correlation with endotoxemia, organ failure, and mortality. J Gastrointest Surg 1999;3:252-62.
16. Juvonen PO, Alhava EM, Takala JA. Gut permeability in patients with acute pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2000;35:1314-8.
17. Deitch EA, Xu D, Berg RD. Bacterial translocation from the gut impairs systemic immunity. Surgery 1991;109:269-76.
18. Exley AR, Leese T, Holliday MP, et al. Endotoxaemia and serum tumor necrosis factor as prognostic markers in severe acute pancreatitis. Gut 1992;33:1126-8.
19. Windsor JA, Fearon KC, Ross JA, et al. The role of serum endotoxin and antiendotoxin core antibody levels in predicting the development of multiple organ failure in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1993;80:1042-6.
20. Barclay GR, Scott BB, Wright IH, et al. Changes in anti-endotoxin IgG antibody and endotoxaemia in three cases of Gram-negative septic shock. Circ Shock 1989;29:93-106.
21. Soong CV, Lewis HG, Halliday MI, et al. Intramucosal acidosis and the inflammatory response in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:2423-9.
22. Moore FD Jr, Moss NA, Revhaug A, et al. A single dose of endotoxin activates neutrophils without activating complement. Surgery 1987;102:200-5.
23. Michie HR, Manogue KR, Spriggs DR, et al. Detection of circulating tumor necrosis factor after endotoxin administration. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1481-6.
24. van Deventer SJ, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, et al. Experimental endotoxemia in humans: analysis of cytokine release and coagulation, fibrinolytic, and complement pathways. Blood 1990;76:2520-6.
25. Morrison DC, Ryan JL. Bacterial endotoxins and host immune responses. Adv Immunol 1979;28:293-450.
26. Territo MC, Golde DW. Granulocyte function in experimental human endotoxemia. Blood 1976;47:539-44.
27. Richardson RP, Rhyne CD, Fong Y, et al. Peripheral blood leukocyte kinetics following in vivo lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration to normal human subjects. Ann Surg 1989;210:239-45.
28. Liehr H, Grun M, Thiel H, et al. Endotoxin-induced liver necrosis and intravascular coagulation in rats enhanced by portacaval collateral circulation. Gut 1975;16:429-36.
29. Curley P, Nestor M, Collins K, et al. Decreased interleukin-2 production in murine acute pancreatitis: potential for immunomodulation. Gastroenterology 1996;110:583-8.
30. Widdison AL, Karanjia ND, Alvarez C, et al. Reticuloendothelial function and efficacy of levamisole for the treatment of pancreatic infection in acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg 1992;163:100-4.
31. Gianotti L, Solomkin JS, Munda R, et al. Failure of local and systemic bacterial clearance in rats with acute pancreatitis. Pancreas 1995;10:78-84.
32. Curley PJ, McMahon MJ, Lancaster F, et al. Reduction in circulating levels of CD4-positive lymphocytes in acute pancreatitis: relationship to endotoxin, interleukin 6 and disease severity. Br J Surg 1993;80:1312-5.
33. Larvin M, Alexander DJ, Switala SF, et al. Impaired mononuclear phagocyte function in patients with severe acute pancreatitis: evidence from studies of plasma clearance of trypsin and monocyte phagocytosis. Dig Dis Sci 1993;38:18-27.
34. 2 macroglobulin-protease complexes in severe and mild attacks. Gut 1991;32:430-4.
35. Garcia-Sabrido JL, Valdecantos E, Bastida E, et al. The anergic state as a predictor of pancreatic sepsis. Zentrabl Chir 1989;114:114-20.
36. Wolochow H, Hilderbrand GJ, Lamanna C. Translocation of microorganisms across the intestinal wall in rats: effect of microbial size and concentration. J Infect Dis 1966;116:523-8.
37. Runkel NS, Moody FG, Smith GS, et al. The role of the gut in the development of sepsis in acute pancreatitis. J Surg Res 1991;51:18-23.
38. Gianotti L, Munda R, Alexander JW. Pancreatitis-induced microbial translocation: a study of the mechanisms. Res Surg 1992;4:87-91.
39. Tarpila E, Nystrom P-O, Franzen L, et al. Bacterial translocation during acute pancreatitis in rats. Eur J Surg 1993;159:109-13.
40. Cicalese L, Sahai A, Sileri P, et al. Acute pancreatitis and bacterial translocation. Dig Dis Sci 2001;46:1127-32.
41. Arendt T, Wendt M, Olszewski M, et al. Cerulein-induced acute pancreatitis in rats - does bacterial translocation occur via a transperitoneal pathway? Pancreas 1997;15:291-6.
42. Bittner R, Block S, Buchler M, et al. Pancreatic abscess and infected pancreatic necrosis: different local septic complications in acute pancreatitis. Dig Dis Sci 1987;32:1082-7.
43. Fedorak IJ, Ko TC, Djuricin G, McMahon M. et al. Secondary pancreatic infections: are they distinct clinical entities? Surgery 1992;112:824-31.
44. Bradley EL. A fifteen-year experience with open drainage for infected pancreatic necrosis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993;177:215-22.
45. Farkas G, Márton J, Mándi Y, et al. Surgical strategy and management of infected pancreatic necrosis. Br J Surg 1996;83:930-3.
46. Rau B, Uhl W, Buchler MW, et al. Surgical treatment of infected necrosis. World J Surg 1997;21:155-61.
47. Foitzik T, Mithofer K, Ferraro MJ, et al. Time course of bacterial infection of the pancreas and its relation to disease severity in a rodent model of acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1994;220:193-8.
48. Mier J, Leon EL, Castillo A, et al. Early versus late necrosectomy in severe necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg 1997;173:71-5.
49. Luiten EJ, Hop WC, Endtz HP, et al. Prognostic importance of gram-negative intestinal colonization preceding pancreatic infection in severe acute pancreatitis. Results of a controlled clinical trial of selective decontamination. Intensive Care Med 1998;24:438-45.
50. Gotzinger P, Wamser P, Barlan M, et al. Candida infection of local necrosis in severe acute pancreatitis is associated with increased mortality. Shock 2000;14:320-3.
51. Schechter S, Eisenstat TE, Oliver GC, et al. Computerized tomographic scanguided drainage of intra-abdominal abscesses: preoperative and postoperative modalities in colon and rectal surgery. Dis Colon Rectum 1994;37:984-8.
52. Matsumata T, Yanaga K, Shimada M, et al. Occurrence of intraperitoneal septic complications after hepatic resections between 1985 and 1990. Surg Today 1995;25:49-54.
53. Seelig MH, Winkeltau GJ, Schumpelick V. Die chirurgische behandlung intraabdomineller abszesse. Leber Magen Darm 1996;26:130-1.
54. Shuler FW, Newman CN, Angood PB, et al. Nonoperative management for intra-abdominal abscesses. Am Surg 1996;62:218-22.
55. Giangreco L, Di Palo S, Castrucci M, et al. Ascessi addominali: trattamento e studio dei fattori prognostici. Minerva Chir 1997;52:369-76.
56. Ammori BJ, Fitzgerald P, Hawkey P, et al. The early increase in intestinal permeability and systemic endotoxin exposure in patients with severe acute pancreatitis is not associated with systemic bacterial translocation: molecular investigation of microbial DNA in the blood. Pancreas 2003. In Press.
57. Kane TD, Johnson SR, Alexander JW, et al. Detection of intestinal bacterial translocation using PCR. J Surg Res 1996;63:59-63.
58. Kane TD, Alexander JW, Johannigman JA. The detection of microbial DNA in the blood. A sensitive method for diagnosing bacteremia and/or bacterial translocation in surgical patients. Ann Surg 1998;227:1-9.
59. Baker JW, Deitch EA, Berg RD, et al. Hemorrhagic shock induces bacterial translocation from the gut. J Trauma 1988;28:896-906.
60. Sori AJ, Rush BF, Lysz TW, et al. The gut as a source of sepsis after hemorrhagic shock. Am J Surg 1988;155:187-92.
61. Navaratnam RL, Morris SE, Traber DL, et al. Endotoxin (LPS) increases mesenteric vascular resistance (MVR) and bacterial translocation (BT). J Trauma 1990;30:1104-13.
62. Redan JA, Rush BF Jr, Lysz TW, et al. Organ distribution of gut-derived bacteria caused by bowel manipulation or ischemia. Am J Surg 1990;159:85-9.
63. Tokyay R, Zeigler ST, Traber DL, et al. Postburn gastrointestinal vasoconstriction increases bacterial and endotoxin translocation. J Appl Physiol 1993;74:1521-7.
64. Haglund U, Hulten L, Ahren C, et al. Mucosal lesions in the human small intestine in shock. Gut 1975;16:979-84.
65. Horton JW, Walker PB. Oxygen radicals, lipid peroxidation, and permeability changes after intestinal ischemia and reperfusion. J Appl Physiol 1993;74:1515-20.
66. Steffen EK, Berg RD. Relationship between cecal population levels and indigenous bacteria and translocation to the mesenteric lymph nodes. Infect Immun 1983;39:1252-9.
67. Deitch EA, Maejima K, Berg R. Effect of oral antibiotics and bacterial overgrowth on the translocation of the GI tract microflora in burned rats. J Trauma 1985;25:385-92.
68. Osterberg J, Johnsson C, Gannedahl G, et al. Alterations in mucosal immune cell distribution in septic rats. Shock 1997;7:182-5.
69. Ammori BJ, Cairns A, Dixon MF, et al. Altered intestinal morphology and immunity in patients with acute necrotising pancreatitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg (in press).
70. Owens WE, Berg RD. Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tract of athymic (nu/nu) mice. Infect Immun 1982;27:461-7.
71. Berg RD. Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tracts of mice receiving immunosuppressive chemotherapeutic agents. Curr Microbiol 1983;8:285-92.
72. Tancrede CH, Andremont AO. Bacterial translocation and gram-negative bacteremia in patients with hematological malignancies. J Infect Dis 1985;152:99-103.
73. Maddaus MA, Wells CL, Platt JL, et al. Effect of T cell modulation on the translocation of the bacteria from the gut and mesenteric lymph nodes. Ann Surg 1988;207:387-98.
74. Deitch EA, Berg R, Specian R. Endotoxin promotes the translocation of bacteria from the gut. Arch Surg 1987;122:185-90.
75. O'Dwyer ST, Michie HR, Ziegler TR, et al. A single dose of endotoxin increases intestinal permeability in healthy humans. Arch Surg 1988;123:1459-64.
76. Fink MP, Antonsson JB, Wang H, et al. Increased intestinal permeability in endotoxic pigs: mesenteric hypoperfusion as an etiologic factor. Arch Surg 1991;126:211-8.
77. Andersson R, Wang X, Sun Z, et al. Effect of a platelet-activating factor antagonist on pancreatitis-associated gut barrier dysfunction in rats. Pancreas 1998;17:107-19.
78. Reynolds JV, Redmond HP, Ueno N, et al. Impairment of macrophage activation and granuloma formation by protein deprivation in mice. Cell Immunol 1992;139:493-504.
79. Sullivan DA, Vaerman JP, Soo C. Influence of severe protein malnutrition on rat lacrimal, salivary and gastrointestinal immune expression during development, adulthood and ageing. Immunology 1993;78:308-17.
80. Alverdy J, Chi HS, Sheldon GF. The effect of parenteral nutrition on gastrointestinal immunity. The importance of enteral stimulation. Ann Surg 1985;202:681-4.
81. Meyer J, Yurt RW, Duhaney R. Differential neutrophil activation before and after endotoxin infusion in enterally versus parenterally fed volunteers. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1988;167:501-9.
82. Wang XD, Wang Q, Andersson R, et al. Alterations in intestinal function in acute pancreatitis in an experimental model. Br J Surg 1996;83:1537-43.
83. Bonham MJD, Abu-Zidan FM, Simovic MO, et al. Gastric intramucosal pH predicts death in severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1997;84:1670-4.
84. Grodsinsky C, Ponka JL. The spectrum of colonic involvement in pancreatitis. Dis Colon Rectum 1978;21:66-70.
85. Chaikhouni A, Regueyra FI, Stevens JR, et al. Colonic fistulization in pancreatitis: case report and literature review. Dis Colon Rectum 1980;23:271-5.
86. Ahlborg G, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JM. Circulating endothelin-1 reduces splanchnic and renal blood flow and splanchnic glucose production in humans. J Appl Physiol 1995;79:141-5.
87. Weitzberg E, Ahlborg G, Lundberg JM. Long-lasting vasoconstriction and efficient regional extraction of endothelin-1 in human splanchnic and renal tissues. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991;180:1298-303.
88. Oldner A, Wanecek M, Goiny M, et al. The endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan restores gut oxygen delivery and reverses intestinal mucosal acidosis in porcine endotoxic shock. Gut 1998;42:696-702.
89. Eibl G, Hotz HG, Faulhaber J, et al. Effect of endothelin and endothelin receptor blockade on capillary permeability in experimental pancreatitis. Gut 2000;46:390-4.
90. Myhre U, Petterson JT, Risoe C, et al. Endothelin-1 and endotoxemia. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;22:S291-4.
91. Wilson MA, Steeb GD, Garrison RN. Endothelins mediate intestinal hypoperfusion during bacteremia. J Surg Res 1993;55:168-75.
92. Hiki N, Berger D, Dentener MA, et al. Changes in endotoxin-binding proteins during major elective surgery: important role for soluble CD4 in regulation of biologic activity of systemic endotoxin. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1999;6:844-50.
93. Kaufmann P, Tilz GP, Smolle KH, et al. Increased plasma concentrations of circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (cICAM-1) in patients with necrotizing pancreatitis. Immunobiology 1996;195:209-19.
94. Werner J, Z'graggen K, Fernandez-del Castillo C, et al. Specific therapy for local and systemic complications of acute pancreatitis with monoclonal antibodies against ICAM-1. Ann Surg 1999;229:834-40.
95. Fiddian-Green RG. Studies in splanchnic ischemia and multiple organ failure. In: Marston A, Bukley GB, Fiddian-Green RG, Haglund UH, eds. Splanchnic ischemia and multiple organ failure. London: Edward Arnold, 1989:349-63.
96. Ranson JHC, Roses DF, Fink SD. Early respiratory insufficiency in acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1972;178:75-9.
97. Imrie CW, Ferguson JC, Murphy D, et al. Arterial hypoxia in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1977;64:185-8.
98. Fiddian-Green RG. Associations between intramucosal acidosis in the gut and organ failure. Crit Care Med 1993;21:S103-7.
99. Schmeling DJ, Caty MG, Oldham KT, et al. Evidence for neutrophil-related acute lung injury after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion. Surgery 1989;106:195-202.
100. Alho AM, Underhill CB. The hyaluronan receptor is preferentially expressed on proliferating epithelial cells. J Cell Biol 1989;108:1557-65.
101. Heel K, Blennerhassett L, Kong A-E, et al. Influence of ischemia-reperfusion injury on CD44 expression in rat small intestine. Br J Surg 1998;85:1086-9.
102. Nagahama S, Korenaga D, Honda M, et al. Assessment of the intestinal permeability after a gastrectomy and the oral administration of anticancer drugs in rats: nitric oxide release in response to gut injury. Surgery 2002;131:S92-7.
103. Tsai CH, Hill M, Asa SL, et al. Intestinal growth-promoting properties of glucagon-like peptide-2 in mice. Am J Physiol 1997;273:E77-84.
104. Chance WT, Foley-Nelson T, Thomas I, et al. Prevention of parenteral nutrition-induced gut hypoplasia by coinfusion of glucagon-like peptide-2. Am J Physiol 1997;273:G559-63.
105. Kouris GJ, Liu Q, Rossi H. et al. The effect of glucagon-like peptide 2 on intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation in acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg 2001;181:571-5.
106. Benjamin MA, McKay DM, Yang PC, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-2 enhances intestinal epithelial barrier function of both transcellular and paracellular pathways in the mouse. Gut 2000;47:112-9.
107. Sitzmann JV, Steinborn PA, Zinner MJ, et al. Total parenteral nutrition and alternate energy substrates in treatment of severe acute pancreatitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1989;168:311-7.
108. Steiner M, Bourges HR, Freedman LS, et al. Effect of starvation on the tissue composition of the small intestine in the rat. Am J Physiol 1968;215:75-7.
109. Rodriguez P, Darmon N, Chappuis P, et al. Intestinal paracellular permeability during malnutrition in guinea pigs: effect of high dietary zinc. Gut 1996;39:416-22.
110. Deitch EA, Winterton J, Li M, et al. The gut as a portal of entry for bacteraemia. Role of protein malnutrition. Ann Surg 1987;205:681-92.
111. Deitch EA. Bacterial translocation: the influence of dietary variables. Gut 1994;35:523-7.
112. Reynolds JV, O'Farrelly C, Feighery C, et al. Impaired gut barrier function in malnourished patients. Br J Surg 1996;83:1288-91.
113. Dempsey DT, Mullen JL, Buzby GP. The link between nutritional status and clinical outcome: can nutritional intervention modify it? Am J Clin Nutr 1988;47:352-6.
114. Johnson LR, Copeland EM, Dudrick SJ, et al. Structural and hormonal alterations in the gastrointestinal tract of parenterally fed rats. Gastroenterology 1975;68:1177-83.
115. O'Dwyer ST, Smith RJ, Hwang TL, et al. Maintenance of small bowel mucosa with glutamine-enriched parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1989;13:579-85.
116. Dowling RH. Cellular and molecular basis of intestinal and pancreatic adaptation. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1992;193:64-7.
117. Li J, Langkamp-Henken B, Suzuki K, et al. Glutamine prevents parenteral nutrition-induced increases in intestinal permeability. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1994;18:303-7.
118. Alverdy JC, Aoys E, Moss GS. Total parenteral nutrition promotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Surgery 1988;104:185-90.
119. Illig KA, Ryan CK, Hardy DJ, et al. Total parenteral nutrition-induced changes in gut mucosal function: atrophy alone is not the issue. Surgery 1992;112:631-7.
120. Groos S, Hunefeld G, Luciano L. Parenteral versus enteral nutrition: morphologic changes in human adult intestinal mucosa. J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol 1996;28:61-74.
121. Van Leeuwen PA, Boermeester MA, Houdijk AP, et al. Clinical significance of translocation. Gut 1994;35:S28-34.
122. Norman J, Franz M, Messina J, et al. Interleukin-I receptor antagonist decreases severity of experimental acute pancreatitis. Surgery 1994;117:648-55.
123. Fink G, Norman J. Specific changes in the pancreatic expression of the interleukin-I family of genes during experimental acute pancreatitis. Cytokine 1997;9:1023-7.
124. Fu K, Sarras MP Jr, De Lisle RC, et al. Expression of oxidative stressresponsive genes and cytokine genes during caerulein-induced acute pancreatitis. Am J Physiol 1997;273:G696-705.
125. de Beaux AC, Goldie AS, Ross JA, et al. Serum concentrations of inflammatory mediators related to organ failure in patients with acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1996;83:349-53.
126. Guice KS, Oldham KT, Caty MG, et al. Neutrophil-dependent, oxygen-radical mediated lung injury associated with acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1989;210:740-7.
127. Banks RE, Evans SW, Alexander D, et al. Is fatal pancreatitis a consequence of excessive leukocyte stimulation? The role of tumor necrosis factor α. Cytokine 1991;3:12-6.
128. de Beaux AC, Ross JA, Maingay JP, et al. Proinflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1996;83:1071-5.
129. McKay CJ, Gallagher G, Brooks B, et al. Increased monocyte cytokine production in association with systemic complications in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1996;83:919-23.
130. Franciose RJ, Moore EE, Moore FA, et al. Postischemic gut is the priming bed for PMNs. Surg Forum 1993;XLIV:142-4.
131. Deitch EA, Dazhong X, Franko L, et al. Evidence favoring the role of the gut as a cytokine-generating organ in rats subjected to hemorrhagic shock. Shock 1994;1:141-6.
132. Jiang JX, Bahrami S, Leichtfried G, et al. Kinetics of endotoxin and tumor necrosis factor appearance in portal and systemic circulation following hemorrhagic shock in rats. Ann Surg 1995;221:100-6.
133. Cabie A, Farkas JC, Fitting C, et al. High levels of portal TNF-alpha during abdominal aortic surgery in man. Cytokine 1993;5:448-53.
134. Koike K, Moore EE, Moore FA, et al. Gut ischemia/reperfusion produces lung injury independent of endotoxin. Crit Care Med 1994;22:1438-44.
135. Breese EJ, Michie CA, Nicholls SW, et al. Tumor necrosis factor α-producing cells in the intestinal mucosa of children with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1994;106:1455-66.
136. Kishimoto T, Akira S, Narazaki M, et al. Interleukin-6 family of cytokines and gp130. Blood 1995;86:1243-54.
137. Biffl WL, Moore EE, Moore FA, et al. Interleukin-6 in the injured patients. Marker of injury or mediator of inflammation. Ann Surg 1996;224:647-64.
138. Leser HG, Gross V, Scheibenbogen C, et al. Elevation of serum interleukin-6 concentration precedes acute-phase response and reflects severity in acute pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1991;101:782-5.
139. Heath DI, Cruickshank A, Gudgeon M, et al. Role of interleukin-6 in mediating the acute phase protein response and potential as an early means of severity assessment in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1993;34:41-5.
140. Baigrie RJ, Lamont PM, Whiting S, et al. Portal endotoxin and cytokine responses during abdominal aortic surgery. Am J Surg 1993;166:248-51.
141. 2 activity in acute pancreatitis: an early guide to severity. Br J Surg 1989;76:731-2.
142. 2 in human acute pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1989;97:1521-6.
143. Koike K, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al. Endotoxin after gut ischemia/reperfusion causes irreversible lung injury. J Surg Res 1992;52:656-62.
144. 2 mediates neutrophil priming and lung injury after mesenteric ischemia-reperfusion. Am J Physiol 1995;268:G397-403.
145. Kim FJ, Moore EE, Moore FA, et al. Reperfused gut elaborates PAF that chemo-attracts and primes neutrophils. J Surg Res 1995;58:636-40.
146. Foitzik T, Eibl G, Hotz HG, et al. Endothelin receptor blockade in severe acute pancreatitis leads to systemic enhancement of microcirculation, stabilization of capillary permeability, and improved survival rates. Surgery 2000;128:399-407.
147. Foitzik T, Faulhaber J, Hotz HG, et al. Endothelin mediates local and systemic disease sequelae in severe experimental pancreatitis. Pancreas 2001;22:248-54.
148. Wanecek M, Oldner A, Rudebill A, et al. Cardiopulmonary dysfunction during porcine endotoxic shock is effectively counteracted by the endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan. Shock 1997;7:364-70.
149. Wolfard A, Vangel R, Szalay L, et al. Endothelin-A receptor antagonism improves small bowel graft perfusion and structure after ischemia and reperfusion. Transplantation 1999;68:1231-8.
150. Foitzik T, Eibl G, Buhr HJ. Therapy for microcirculatory disorders in severe acute pancreatitis: comparison of delayed therapy with ICAM-1 antibodies and a specific endothelin A receptor antagonist. J Gastrointest Surg 2000;4:240-6.
151. Inoue S, Nakao A, Kishimoto W, et al. LFA-1 (CD11a/CD18) and ICAM-1 (CD54) antibodies attenuate superoxide anion release from polymorphonuclear leukocytes in rats with experimental acute pancreatitis. Pancreas 1996;12:183-8.
152. Widdison AL, Karanjia ND, Reber HA. Antimicrobial treatment of pancreatic infection in cats. Br J Surg 1994;81:886-9.
153. Araida T, Frey CF, Reubner B, et al. Therapeutic regimens in acute experimental pancreatitis in rats: effects of a protease inhibitor, a β-agonist, and antibiotics. Pancreas 1995;11:132-40.
154. Foitzik T, Fernandez-del Castillo C, Ferraro MJ, et al. Pathogenesis and prevention of early pancreatic infection in experimental acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1995;222:179-85.
155. Mithöfer K, Del Castillo CF, Ferraro MJ, et al. Antibiotic treatment improves survival in experimental acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1996;110:232-40.
156. Pederzoli P, Bassi C, Vesentini S, et al. A randomized multicenter clinical trial of antibiotic prophylaxis of septic complications in acute necrotizing pancreatitis with imipenem. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993;176:480-3.
157. Sainio V, Kemppaainen E, Puolakkainen P, et al. Early antibiotic treatment in acute necrotising pancreatitis. Lancet 1995;346:663-7.
158. Delcenserie R, Yzet T, Ducroix JP. Prophylactic antibiotics in treatment of severe acute alcoholic pancreatitis. Pancreas 1996;13:198-201.
159. Schwarz M, Isenmann R, Meyer H, et al. Antibiotic use in necrotizing pancreatitis: results of a controlled study. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1997;122:356-61.
160. Johnson CD. Antibiotic prophylaxis in severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1996;83:883-4.
161. Powell JJ, Miles R, Siriwardena AK. Antibiotic prophylaxis in the initial management of severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1998;85:582-7.
162. Barie PS. A critical review of antibiotic prophylaxis in severe acute pancreatitis. Am J Surg 1996;172:38S-43S.
163. Isaji S, Suzuki M, Frey CF, et al. Role of bacterial infection in diet-induced acute pancreatitis in mice. Int J Pancreatol 1992;11:49-57.
164. Gianotti L, Munda R, Gennai R, et al. Effect of different regimens of gut decontamination on bacterial translocation and mortality in experimental acute pancreatitis. Eur J Surg 1995;161:85-92.
165. Luiten EJT, Hop WCJ, Lange JF, et al. Controlled clinical trial of selective decontamination for the treatment of severe acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1995;222:57-65.
166. Lange JF, van Gool J, Tytgat GN. The protective effect of a reduction in intestinal flora on mortality of acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis in the rat. Hepatogastroenterology 1987;34:28-30.
167. Sulkowski U, Boin C, Brockmann J, et al. The influence of caecostomy and colonic irrigation on the pathophysiology and prognosis in acute experimental pancreatitis. Eur J Surg 1993;159:287-91.
168. Marotta F, Geng TC, Wu CC, et al. Bacterial translocation in the course of acute pancreatitis: beneficial role of nonabsorbable antibiotics and lactitol enemas. Digestion 1996;57:446-52.
169. Sahin M, Yol S, Ciftci E, et al. Does large-bowel enema reduce septic complications in acute pancreatitis? Am J Surg 1998;176:331-4.
170. Levine GN, Derin JJ, Steiger E, et al. Role of oral intake and maintenance of gut mass and disaccharide activity. Gastroenterology 1974;67:975-82.
171. Saito H, Trocki O, Alexander JW, et al. The effect of route of nutrient administration on the nutritional state, catabolic hormone secretion, and gut mucosal integrity after burn injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1987;11:1-7.
172. Lowry SF. The route of feeding influences injury responses. J Trauma 1990;30:S10-5.
173. Sax HC, Warner BW, Talamini MA, et al. Early total parenteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis: lack of beneficial effects. Am J Surg 1987;153:117-24.
174. Moore FA, Moore EE, Jones TN, et al. TEN versus TPN following major torso trauma - reduced septic morbidity. J Trauma 1989;29:916-23.
175. Kudsk KA, Croce MA, Fabian TC, et al. Enteral versus parenteral feeding: effect on septic morbidity after blunt and penetrating abdominal trauma. Ann Surg 1992;215:503-11.
176. Moore FA, Feliciano DV, Andrassy RJ, et al. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications. The results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg 1992;216:172-83.
177. Kalfarentzos F, Kehagias J, Mead N, et al. Enteral nutrition is superior to parenteral nutrition in severe acute pancreatitis: results of a randomized prospective trial. Br J Surg 1997;84:1665-9.
178. McClave SA, Greene LM, Snider HL, et al. Comparison of the safety of early enteral vs parenteral nutrition in mild acute pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1997;21:14-20.
179. Windsor ACJ, Kanwar S, Li AGK, et al. Compared with parenteral nutrition, enteral feeding attenuates the acute phase response and improves disease severity in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1998;42:431-5.
180. Powell JJ, Murchison JT, Fearon KC, et al. Randomized controlled trial of the effect of early enteral nutrition on markers of the inflammatory response in predicted severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2000;87:1375-81.
181. Souba WW, Klimberg VS, Hautamaki RD, et al. Oral glutamine reduces bacterial translocation following abdominal radiation. J Surg Res 1990;48:1-5.
182. Gianotti L, Braga M, Fortis C, et al. A prospective, randomized clinical trial on perioperative feeding with an arginine-, omega-3 fatty acid-, and RNA-enriched enteral diet: effect on host response and nutritional status. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999;23:314-20.
183. Gadek JE, DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD, et al. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Enteral Nutrition in ARDS Study Group. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1409-20.
184. Galban C, Montejo JC, Mesejo A, et al. An immune-enhancing enteral diet reduces mortality rate and episodes of bacteremia in septic intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 2000;28:643-8.
185. Foitzik T, Kruschewski M, Kroesen AJ, et al. Does glutamine reduce bacterial translocation? A study in two animal models with impaired gut barrier. Int J Colorectal Dis 1999;14:143-9.