Detection and management of comorbidity in patients with schizophrenia

Psychiatric Clinics of North America

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 115-139

  Green, Alan I ^a,b   Canuso, Carla M ^a,b   Brenner, Mark J ^a,b   Wojcik, Joanne D ^a,b  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS MENTAL HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ARIPIPRAZOLE; CLOMIPRAMINE; CLOZAPINE; FLUOXETINE; HALOPERIDOL; IMIPRAMINE; LITHIUM; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; RISPERIDONE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; THIORIDAZINE; ZIPRASIDONE;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ALCOHOL ABUSE; CAUSE OF DEATH; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; LIPID METABOLISM; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MYOCARDITIS; OBESITY; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PATIENT EDUCATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; QT INTERVAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR; SUICIDE; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; WEIGHT GAIN;

AGE OF ONSET; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; HIV SEROPOSITIVITY; HUMANS; OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SMOKING; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SUICIDE;

EID: 0037349852     PISSN: 0193953X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0193-953X(02)00014-X     Document Type: Review

References (216)

1. Simpson JC, Tsuang MT. Mortality among patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1996;22:485-99.
2. Adler LE, Griffith JM. Concurrent medical illness in the schizophrenic patient: epidemiology, diagnosis, and management. Schizophr Res 1991;4:91-107.
3. Cassano GB, Pini S, Saettoni M, Rucci P, Dell'Osso L. Occurrence and clinical correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in patients with psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:60-8.
4. Dixon L, Postrado L, Delahanty J, Fischer PJ, Lehman A. The association of medical comorbidity in schizophrenia with poor physical and mental health. J Nerv Ment Dis 1999;187:496-502.
5. Goldman LS. Medical illness in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:10-5.
6. Bermanzohn PC, Porto L, Arlow PB, Pollack S, Stronger R, Siris SG. Hierarchical diagnosis in chronic schizophrenia: a clinical study of co-occurring syndromes. Schizophr Bull 2000;26:517-25.
7. Brown S. Excess mortality of schizophrenia: a meta analysis. Br J Psychiatry 1997;171:502-8.
8. Murphy KC, Jones LA, Owen MJ. High rates of schizophrenia in adults with velocardio-facial syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:940-5.
9. Grossman MH, Emanuel BS, Budarf ML. Chromosomal mapping of the human catechol-O-methyl transferase gene to 22q11.1-q112. Genomics 1992;12:822-5.
10. Carlsson A. The current status of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1988;1:179-86.
11. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS, Callicott JH, Mazzanti CM, Straub RE, et al. Effect of COMT Va1108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98:6917-22.
12. Green AI, Zimmet SV, Strous RD, Schildkraut JJ. Clozapine for comorbid substance use disorder and schizophrenia: do patients with schizophrenia have a reward-deficiency syndrome that can be ameliorated by clozapine? Harv Rev Psychiatry 1999;6:287-96.
13. Prior P, Hassall C, Cross KW. Causes of death associated with psychiatric illness. J Public Health Med 1996;18:381-9.
14. Eaton WE, Hayward C, Ram R. Schizophrenia and rheumatoid arthritis: a review. Schizophr Res 1992;6:181-92.
15. Dalack GW, Healy DJ, Meador-Woodruff JH. Nicotine dependence in schizophrenia: clinical phenomena and laboratory findings. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1490-501.
16. Fenton WS. Comorbid conditions in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2001;14:17-23.
17. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH. The prognostic significance of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:437-41.
18. Gruenberg AM, Goldstein RD. Depressive disorders. In: Tasman A, editor. Depressive disorders in psychiatry. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1997. p. 990-5.
19. McGlashan TH, Carpenter WT. Postpsychotic depression in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;33:231-9.
20. Sax KW, Strakowski SM, Keck PE, Upadhyaya VH, McElroy SL, West SA. Relationship among negative, positive, and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia and psychotic depression. Br J Psychiatry 1996;168:68-71.
21. Koreen AR, Siris SG, Chakos M, Alvir J, Mayerhoff D, Lieberman J. Depression in firstepisode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1643-8.
22. Tollefson GD, Andersen SW, Tran PV. The course of depressive symptoms in predicting relapse in schizophrenia: a double-blind, randomized comparison of olanzapine and risperidone. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46:365-73.
23. Birchwood M, Iqbal Z, Chadwick P, Trower P. Cognitive approach to depression and suicidal thinking in psychosis: 1. ontogeny of post-psychotic depression. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:516-21.
24. Siris SG. Diagnosis of secondary depression in schizophrenia: implications for DSM-IV. Schizophr Bull 1991;17:75-98.
25. Mandel MR, Severe JB, Schooler NR, Gelenberg AJ, Mieske M. Development and prediction of postpsychotic depression in neuroleptic-treated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:197-203.
26. Drake RE, Gates C, Cotton PG. Suicide among schizophrenics: a comparison of attempters and completed suicides. Br J Psychiatry 1986;149:784-7.
27. Martin RL, Cloninger CR, Guze SB, Clayton PJ. Frequency and differential diagnosis of depressive syndromes in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1985;46:9-13.
28. Siris SG, Lavin MR. Other psychotic disorders. In: Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ, editors. Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry/VI, vol. 1. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1995. p. 1019-25.
29. Iqbal Z, Birchwood M, Chadwick P, Trower P. Cognitive approach to depression and suicidal thinking in psychosis: 2. testing the validity of a social ranking model. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:522-8.
30. Siris SG. Depression in schizophrenia: perspective in the era of "atypical" antipsychotics. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:1379-89.
31. Schwartz CC, Myers JK. Life events and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1977;34:1238-41.
32. Lysaker PH, Bell MD, Bioty SM, Zito WS. The frequency of associations between positive and negative symptoms and dysphoria in schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 1995;36:113-7.
33. Bartels SJ, Drake RE. Depressive symptoms in schizophrenia: Comprehensive differential diagnosis. Compr Psychiatry 1988;29:467-83.
34. Siris SG. Akinesia and postpsychotic depression: a difficult differential diagnosis. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;38:240-3.
35. Siris SG, Adan F, Cohen M, Mandeli J, Aronson A, Casey E. Postpsychotic depression and negative symptoms: an investigation of syndromal overlap. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:1532-7.
36. Zisook S, McAdams LA, Kuck J, Harris MJ, Bailey A, Patterson TL, et al. Depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1736-43.
37. Bottlender R, Straub A, Möller HJ. Prevalence and background factors of depression in first admitted schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000;101:153-60.
38. Siris SG. Management of depression in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Ann 2000;30:13-9.
39. Levinson DF, Umapathy C, Musthaq M. Treatment of schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia with mood symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1138-48.
40. Tollefson GD, Sanger TM, Lu Y, Thieme ME. Depressive signs and symptoms in schizophrenia: a prospective blinded trial of olanzapine and haloperidol. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:250-8.
41. Marder SR, Davis JM, Chouindard CH. The effects of risperidone on the five dimensions of schizophrenia derived by factor analysis: combined results of the North American trials. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58:538-46.
42. Banov MD, Zarate CA, Tohen M, Scialabba D, Wines JD, Kolbrener M, et al. Clozapine therapy in refractory affective disorders: polarity predicts response in long-term follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:295-300.
43. Siris SG, Morgan V, Fagerstrom R, Rifkin A, Cooper TB. Adjunctive imipramine in the treatment of postpsychotic depression: a controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:533-9.
44. Hogarty GE, McEvoy JP, Ulrich RF, DiBarry AL, Bartone P, Cooley S, et al. Pharmacotherapy of impaired affect in recovering schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:29-41.
45. Kirli S, Caliskan M. A comparative study of sertraline versus imipramine in postpsychotic depressive disorder of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998;33:103-11.
46. Eisen JL, Beer DA, Pato MT, Venditto TA, Rasmussen SA. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in patients with schizophrenia or schizoa ffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:271-3.
47. Tibbo P, Kroetsch M, Chue P, Warneke L Obsessive-compulsive disorder in schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2000;34:139-46.
48. Berman I, Berman SM, Lengua JA, Green AI. Obsessive and compulsive symptoms in chronic schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 1995;36:6-10.
49. Hwang MY, Opler LA. Management of schizophrenia with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Ann 2000;30:23-8.
50. Bermanzohn PC, Porto L, Arlow PB, et al. Obsessions and delusions: separate and distinct or overlapping? CNS Spectrums 1995;2:58-61.
51. Rosen I. The clinical significance of obsessions in schizophrenia. J Ment Sci 1956;103:773-85.
52. Hwang MY, Morgan JE, Losconzey MF. Clinical and neuropsychological profiles of obsessive-compulsive schizophrenia: a pilot study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000;12:91-4.
53. Lysaker PH, Marks KA, Picone JB, Rollins AL, Fastenau PS, Bond GR. Obsessive and compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: clinical and neurocognitive correlates. J Nerv Ment Dis 2000;188:78-83.
54. Berman I, Merson A, Viegner B, Losonczy MF, Pappas D, Green AI. Obsessions and compulsions as a distinct cluster of symptoms in schizophrenia: a neuropsychological study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998;186:150-6.
55. Schmidtke K, Schorb A, Winkelmann G, Hohagan F. Cognitive frontal lobe dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1998;43:666-73.
56. Berman I, Chang HH, Klegon DA. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: neuropsychological perspectives. Psychiatr Ann 1999;29:525-8.
57. Goodman WK, Price LH, Rasmussen SA, Mazure C, Fleischmann RL, Hill CL, et al. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: I. development, use, and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:1006-11.
58. Poyurovsky M, Dorfman-Etrog P, Hermesh H, Munitz H, Tollefson GD, Weizman A. Beneficial effects of olanzapine in schizophrenic patients with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;15:169-73.
59. Berman I, Sapers B, Chang H, Losonczy M, Schmilder J, Green A. Treatment of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenic patients with clomipramine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;15:206-10.
60. Chang HH, Berman I. Treatment issues for patients with schizophrenia who have obsessive-complusive symtoms. Psychiatric Annals 1999;29:529-32.
61. Baker RW, Chengappa KN, Baird JW, Steingard S, Christ MA, Schooler NR. Emergence of obsessive compulsive symptoms during treatment with clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53:439-42.
62. Kopala L, Honer WG. Risperidone, serotonergic mechanisms, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1714-5.
63. Morrison D, Clark D, Goldfarb E, McCoy L. Worsening of obsessive-compulsive symptoms following treatment with olanzapine. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:855.
64. Baker RW, Ames D, Umbricht DS, Chengappa KN, Schooler N. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia: a comparison of olanzapine and placebo. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996;32:89-93.
65. Strous RD, Patel JK, Zimmet S, Green AI. Clozapine and paroxetine in the treatment of schizophrenia with obsessive-compulsive features. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:973-4.
66. McDougle CJ, Epperson CN, Pelton GH, Wasylink S, Price LH. A double-blind, placebocontrolled study of risperidone addition in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:794-801.
67. van Balkom AJ, de Haan E, van Oppen P, Spinhoven P, Hoogduin KA, van Dyck R. Cognitive and behavioral therapies alone versus in combination with fluvoxamine in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998;186:492-9.
68. Goff DC. The comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder and schizophrenia. Psychiatr Ann 1999;29:533-6.
69. Mueser KT, Yarnold PR, Levinson DF, Singh H, Bellack AS, Kee K, et al. Prevalence of substance abuse in schizophrenia: demographic and clinical correlates. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:31-56.
70. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, Locke BZ, Keith SJ, Judd LL, et al. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. JAMA 1990;264:2511-8.
71. Hughes JR, Hatsukami DK, Mitchell JE, Dahlgren LA. Prevalence of smoking among schizophrenic outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:993-7.
72. Drake RE, Mueser KT. Alcohol-use disorder and severe mental illness. Alcohol Health Res World 1996;20:87-93.
73. Selzer JA, Lieberman JA. Schizophrenia and substance abuse. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1993;16:401-12.
74. Sevy S, Kay SR, Opler LA, van Praag HM. Significance of cocaine history in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1990;178:642-8.
75. Mueser KT, Bennett M, Kushner MG. Epidemiology of substance use disorders among persons with chronic mental illness. In: Lehman AF, Dixon LB, editors. Double jeopardy: chronic mental illness and substance use disorders. Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers; 1995. p. 9-25.
76. Drake RE, Mueser KT. Substance abuse comorbidity. In: Lieberman JA, Murray RM, editors. Comprehensive care of schizophrenia. London: Martin Dunitz; 2001. p. 243-54.
77. Cournos F, Bakalar N. AIDS and people with severe mental illness: a handbook for mental health professionals. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1996. p. 346.
78. Hurlburt MS, Hough RL, Wood PA. Effects of substance abuse on housing stability of homeless mentally ill persons in supported hoasing. Psychiatr Serv 1996;47:731-6.
79. Dixon L, Haas G, Weiden P, Sweeney J, Frances A. Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical observations and patients' self reports. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:69-79.
80. Soni S, Sobell M. Alcohol abuse in chronic schizophrenics: implications for management in the community. Acta Psychiatry Scand 1991;84:272-6.
81. Negrete JC, Knapp WP, Douglas DE, Smith WB. Cannabis affects the severity of schizophrenic symptoms: results of a clinical survey. Psychol Med 1986;16:515-20.
82. Grech A, Van Os J, Murray RM. Influence of cannabis on the outcome of psychosis. Schizophr Res 1999;36:41.
83. Rolfe TJ, McGory P, Cooks J, Longley T, Plowright D. Cannabis use in first episode psychosis: incidence and short-term outcome. Schizophr Res 1999;36:313.
84. Addington J. Early intervention strategies for co-morbid cannabis use and psychosis. Presented at the Inaugural International Cannabis and Psychosis Conference. Melbourne, 1999.
85. Dickey B, Azeni H. Persons with dual diagnoses of substance abuse and major mental illness: their excess costs of psychiatric care. Am J Public Health 1996;86:973-7.
86. Khantzian EJ. A self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:1259-64.
87. Siris SG. Pharmacological treatment of substance-abusing schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Bull 1990;16:111-22.
88. Glynn SH, Sussman S. Why patients smoke. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:1027-8.
89. Lysaker P, Bell M, Beam-Goulet J, Milstein R. Relationship of positive and negative symptoms to cocaine abuse in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1994;182:109-12.
90. Buchanan RW, Strauss ME, Breier A, Kirkpatric B, Carpenter WT. Attentional impairments in deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:363-70.
91. Svensson TH, Mathe MH, Anderson JL, Nomikos GG, Hildebrand BE, Marcus M. Mode of action of atypical neuroleptics in relation to the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;5:11S-8S.
92. Chambers AR, Krystal JH, Self DW. A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2001;50:71-83.
93. Fadda F, Mosca E, Colombo G, Gessa GL. Effects of spontaneous ingestion of ethanol on brain dopamine metabolism. Life Sci 1989;44:281-7.
94. Goeders NE, Smith JE. Reinforcing properties of cocaine in the medial prefrontal cortex: primary action on presynaptic dopaminergic terminals. Pharm Biochem Behav 1986;25:191-9.
95. Ananth J, Vandewater S, Kamal M, Brodsky A, Gamal R, Miller M. Missed diagnosis of substance abuse in psychiatric patients. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1989;40:297-9.
96. Rosenberg SD, Drake RE, Wolford GL, Mueser KT, Oxman TE, Vidaver RM, et al. Dartmouth Assessment of Lifestyle Instrument (DALI): a substance use disorder screen for people with severe mental illness. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:232-8.
97. Bellack AS, DiClemente CC. Treating subsLance abuse among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 1999;50:75-80.
98. Osher FC, Kofoed LL. Treatment of patients with both psychiatric and psychoactive substance use disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1989;40:1025-30.
99. Minkoff K. An integrated treatment model for dual diagnosis of psychosis and addiction. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1989;40:1031-6.
100. Drake RE, Essock SM, Shaner A, Carey KB, Minkoff K, Kola L, et al. Implementing dual diagnosis services for clients with severe mental illness. Psychiatr Serv 2001;52:469-76.
101. Ziedonis D, Williams J, Corrigan P, Smelson D. Management of substance abuse in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Ann 2000;30:67-75.
102. Drake RE, Mueser KT. Psychosocial approaches to dual diagnosis. Schizophr Bull 2000;26:105-18.
103. Wilkins JN. Pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia patients with comorbid substance abuse. Schizophr Bull 1997;23:215-28.
104. Krystal JH, D'Souza DC, Madonick S, Petrakis IL. Toward a rational pharmacotherapy of comorbid substance abuse in schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 1999;35:35-49.
105. Siegfried SL, Fleishchacker W, Lieberman JA. Pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia. In: Lieberman JA, Murray RM, editors. Comprehensive care of schizophrenia. London: Martin Dunitz; 2001. p. 59-94.
106. Harvey PD, Keefe RE. Cognition and the new antipsychotics. J Adv Schizophr Brain Res 1998;1:2-8.
107. Albanese MJ, Khantzian EJ, Murphy SL, Green AI. Decreased substance use in chronically psychotic patients treated with clozapine. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:780-1.
108. Buckley P, Thompson P, Way L, Meltzer HY. Substance abuse among patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: characteristics and implications for clozapine therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:385-9.
109. Yovell Y, Opler LA. Clozapine reverses cocaine craving in a treatment-resistant mentally ill chemical abuser: a case report and a hypothesis. J Nerv Ment Dis 1994;182:591-2.
110. McEvoy JP, Freudenreich O, McGee M, VanderZwaag C, Levin E, Rose J. Clozapine decreases smoking in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37:550-2.
111. Drake RE, Xie H, McHugo GJ, Green AI. The effects of clozapine on alcohol and drug use disorders among schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Bull 2000;26:441-9.
112. Zimmet SV, Strous RD, Burgess ES, Kohnstamm S, Green Al. Effects of clozapine on substance use in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: a retrospective survey. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;20:94-8.
113. Buckley P, McCarthy M, Chapman P, Richman C, Yamamoto B. Clozapine treatment of comorbid substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1999;36:272.
114. Lee ML, Dickson RA, Campbell M, Oliphant J, Gretton H, Dalby JT. Clozapine and substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia. Can J Psychiatry 1998;45:855-6.
115. Green AI, Burgess ES, Zimmet SV, Dawson R, Strous R. Alcohol and cannabis use in schizophrenia: effects of clozapine and risperidone. Schizophr Res (in press).
116. Smelson DA, Williams J, Kaune M, Losonczy MF, Menza M, Ziedonis D. Reduced cue-elicited cocaine craving and relapses following treatment with risperidone. Presented at the American Psychiatric Association; Chicago, 2000.
117. Albanese M. Risperidone in substance abusers with bipolar disorder. Presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology. San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2000.
118. th Annual Convention of the Society of Biological Psychiatry. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2002.
119. Kofoed L, Kania J, Walsh T, Tkinson R. Outpatient treatment of patients with substance abuse and coexisting psychiatric disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:867-72.
120. Kingsbury SJ, Salzman C. Disulfiram in the treatment of alcoholic patients with schizophrenia. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:133-4.
121. Maxwell S, Shinderman MS. Naltrexone in the treatment of dually diagnosed patients. J Addict Dis 1997;16:125.
122. Dougherty RJ. Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependent dual diagnosed patients. J Addict Dis 1997;16:107.
123. Sernyak MJ, Glazer WM, Heninger GR, Charney DS, Woods SW, Petrakis IL, Krystal JH, Price LH. Naltrexone augmentation of neuroleptics in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998;18:245-51.
124. Ziedonis D, Richardson T, Lee E, Petrakis I, Kosten T. Adjunctive desipramine in the treatment of cocaine abusing schizophrenics. Psychopharmacol Bull 1992;28:309-14.
125. Siris SG, Mason SE, Bermanzohn PC, Shuwall MA, Aseniero MA. Adjunctive imipramine in substance-abusing dysphoric schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacol Bull 1993;29:127-33.
126. Black DW, Warrack G, Winokur G. The Iowa record-linkage study: I. suicides and accidental deaths among psychiatric patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:71-5.
127. Tsuang MT, Fleming JA, Simpson JC. Suicide and schizophrenia. In: Jacobs DG, editor. The Harvard Medical School guide to suicide assessment and intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1999. p. 287-99.
128. Baxter D, Appleby L. Case register study of suicide risk in mental disorders. Br J Psychiatry 1999;175:322-6.
129. Westermeyer JF, Harrow M, Marengo JT. Risk for suicide in schizophrenia and other psychotic and nonpsychotic disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:259-66.
130. Drake RE, Gates C, Whitaker A, Cotton PG. Suicide among schizophrenics: a review. Compr Psychiatry 1985;26:90-100.
131. Amador XF, Friedman JH, Kasapis C, Yale SA, Flaum M, Gorman JM. Suicidal behavior in schizophrenia and its relationship to awareness of illness. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1185-8.
132. Roy A. Risk factors for suicide in psychiatric patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:1089-95.
133. Rossau CD, Mortensen PB. Risk factors for suicide in patients with schizophrenia: nested case-control study. Br J Psychiatry 1997;171:355-9.
134. Drake RE, Cotton PG. Depression, hopelessness and suicide in chronic schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:554-9.
135. Gupta S, Black DW, Arndt S, Hubbard WC, Andreasen NC. Factors associated with suicide attempts among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 1998;49:1353-5.
136. Heilae H, Isometsae ET, Henriksson MM, Heikkinen ME, Marttunen MJ, Loennqvist JK. Suicide and schizophrenia: a nationwide psychological autopsy study on age- and sex-specific clinical characteristics of 92 suicide victims with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1235.
137. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH, Victor BJ, Blyler CR. Symptoms, subtype, and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:199-204.
138. Weiss R, Hufford M. Substance abuse and suicide. In: Jacobs DG, editor. The Harvard Medical School guide to suicide assessment and intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1999. p. 300-10.
139. Kaplan KJ, Harrow M. Positive and negative symptoms as risk factors for later suicidal activity in schizophrenics versus depressives. Suicide Life Threat Behav 1996;26:105-21.
140. Allebeck P. Schizophrenia: a life-shortening disease. Schizophr Bull 1989;15:81-9.
141. Earle KA, Forquer SL, Volo AM, McDonnell PM. Characteristics of outpatient suicides. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1994;45:123-6.
142. Harkavy-Friedman JM, Nelson E. Management of the suicidal patient with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1997;20:625-40.
143. Heilae H, Isometsae ET, Henriksson MM, Heikkinen ME, Marttunen MJ, Loennqvist JK. Suicide victims with schizophrenia in different treatment phases and adequacy of antipsychotic medication. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:200.
144. Meltzer HY, Okayli G. Reduction of suicidality during clozapine treatment of neurolepticresistant schizophrenia: impact of risk-benefit assessment. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:183-90.
145. Walker A, Lanaza L, Arellano F, Rothman K. Mortality in current and former users of clozapine. Epidemiology 1997;8:671-7.
146. Reid WH, Mason M, Hogan T. Suicide prevention effects associated with clozapine therapy in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatr Serv 1998;49:1029-33.
147. Meltzer HY, Alphs L, Green AI, Altamura CA, Anand R, Bertoldi A, et al. Reduced suicidality in schizophrenia with clozapine treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry (in press).
148. Cohen LJ, Test MA, Brown RL. Suicide and schizophrenia: data from a prospective community treatment study. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:602-7.
149. Koranyi EK. Morbidity and rate of undiagnosed physical illnesses in a psychiatric clinic population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:414-9.
150. Munk-Jorgensen P, Mors O, Mortensen PB, Ewald H. The schizophrenic patient in the somatic hospital. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000;102:96-9.
151. Allebeck P, Wistedt B. Mortality in schizophrenia: a ten-year follow-up based on the Stockholm County inpatient register. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:650-3.
152. Tsuang MT, Perkins K, Simpson JC. Physical diseases in schizophrenia and affective disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:42-6.
153. de Leon J, Verghese C, Tracy JI, Josiassen RC, Simpson GM. Polydipsia and water intoxication in psychiatric patients: a review of the epidemiological literature. Biol Psychiatry 1994;35:408-19.
154. Abraham G, Friedman RH, Verghese C. Osteoporosis demonstrated by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in chronic schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1996;40:430-1.
155. Rosenberg SD, Goodman LA, Osher FC, Swartz MS, Essock SM, Butterfied MI, et al. Prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in people with severe mental illness. Am J Public Health 2001;91:31-7.
156. Brown S, Inskip H, Barraclough B. Causes of excess mortality of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:212-7.
157. Buda M, Tsuang MT, Fleming JA. Causes of death in DSM-III schizophrenics and other psychotics (atypical group): a comparison with the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:283-5.
158. Mortensen PB, Juel K. Mortality and cause of death in schizophrenic patients in Denmark. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;81:372-7.
159. Tsuang MT, Winokur G, Crowe RR. Morbidity risks of schizophrenia and affective disorders among first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia, mania, depression and surgical conditions. Br J Psychiatry 1980;137:497-504.
160. Koranyi EK. Physical health and illness in a psychiatric outpatient department population. Can Psychiatr Assoc J 1972;17(Suppl 2):SS109.
161. Dworken RH. Pain insensitivity in schizophrenia: a neglected phenomenon and some implications. Schizophr Bull 1994;20:235-48.
162. Brown S, Birtwistle J, Roe L, Thompson C. The unhealthy lifestyle of people with schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1999;29:697-701.
163. Winkleby M, Jatulis DE, Frank E, Fortmann SP. Socioeconomic status and health: how education, income, and occupation contribute to risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Am J Public Health 1992;82:816-20.
164. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Reducing the health consequences of smoking: 25 years of progress - a report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Centers for Disease Control; 1989.
165. Lichtermann D, Ekelund J, Pukkala E, Tanskanen A, Lonnqvist J. Incidence of cancer among persons with schizophrenia and their relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:573-8.
166. Jablensky A, Lawrence D. Schizophrenia and cancer: is there a need to invoke a protective gene. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:579-80.
167. Covey L, Hughes DC, Glassman AH, Blazer DG, George LK. Ever-smoking, quitting, and psychiatric disorders: evidence from the Durham, North Carolina Epidemiologic Catchment Area. Tobacco Control 1994;3:222-7.
168. George TP, Ziedonis DM, Feingold A, Pepper WT, Satterburg CA, Winkel J, et al. Nicotine transdermal patch and atypical antipsychotic medications for smoking cessation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:1835-42.
169. McEvoy JP, Freudenreich O, Levin ED, Rose JE. Haloperidol increases smoking in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 1995;119:124-6.
170. George TP, Sernyak MJ, Ziedonis DM, Woods SM. Effects of clozapine on smoking in chronic schizophrenic outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:4-11.
171. Weiner E, Ball MP, Summerfelt A, Gold J, Buchanan R. Effects of sustained-release bupropion and supportive group therapy on cigarette consumption in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:635-7.
172. Brenner LM, Karper LP, Krystal JH. Short-term use of disulfiram with clozapine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1994;14:313-4.
173. Carol G, Smelson DA, Losonczy MF, Ziedonis D. Alcohol and drug abuse: a preliminary investigation of cocaine craving among persons with and without schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 2001;52:1029-31.
174. Sewell DD, Schizophrenia and HIV. Schizophr Bull 1996;22:465-73.
175. United States Department of Health and Human Services. National health interview survey. CD-Rom Series 10; 1993.
176. Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Heo M, Mentore JL, Cappelleri JC, Chandler LP, et al. The distribution of body mass index among individuals with and without schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:215-20.
177. Stedman T, Welham J. The distribution of adipose tissue in female inpatients receiving psychotic drugs. Br J Psychiatry 1993;162:249-50.
178. Green AI, Patel JP, Goisman RM, Allison DB, Blackburn G. Weight gain from novel antipsychotic drugs: need for action. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2000;22:224-35.
179. Henderson DC, Cagliero E, Gray CO, Nasrallah RA, Hayden D, Schoenfeld DA, et al. Clozapine, diabetes mellitus, weight gain, and lipid abnormalities: a five-year naturalistic study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:975-81.
180. Winkelman JW. Schizophrenia, obesity, and obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62:8-11.
181. Allison DB, Mentore JM, Heo M, Chandler L, Cappelleri JC, Infante M, et al. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a comprehensive research synthesis. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1686-96.
182. Wirshing DA, Spellberg BJ, Erhart SM, Marder SR, Wirshing WC. Novel antipsychotics and new onset diabetes. Biol Psychiatry 1998;44:778-83.
183. Waddington JL, Youssef HA, Kinsella A. Mortality in schizophrenia: antipsychotic polypharmacy and absence of adjunctive anticholinergics over the course of a 10-year prospective study. Br J Psychiatry 1998;173:325-9.
184. Hagg S, Joelsson L, Mjorndal T, Spigset O, Oja G, Dahlqvist R. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in patients treated with clozapine compared with patients treated with conventional depot neuroleptic medications. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:294-9.
185. Osser DN, Najarian DM, Dufresne RL. Olanzapine increases weight and serum triglyceride levels. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:767-70.
186. Glassman AH, Bigger JT Jr. Antipsychotic drugs: prolonged QTc interval, torsade de pointes, and sudden death. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1774-82.
187. Alphs LD, Anand R. Clozapine: the commitment to patient safety. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:39-42.
188. Devinsky O, Honigfeld G, Patin J. Clozapine-related seizures. Neurology 1991;41:369-71.
189. Kilian JG, Kerr K, Lawrence C, Celermajer DS. Myocarditis and cardiomyophathy associated with clozapine. Lancet 1999;354:1841-5.
190. La Grenade L, Graham D, Trontell A. Myocarditis and cardiomyopathy associated with clozapine use in the United States. N Engl J Med 2001;345:224-5.
191. Casey DE, Keepers GA. Neuroleptic side effects: acute extrapyramidal syndromes and tardive dyskinesia. In: Casey DE, Christensen AV, editors. Psychopharmacology: current trends. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1988. p. 74-93.
192. Dickson RA, Glazer WM. Neuroleptic-induced hyperprolactinemia. Schizophr Res 1999;35:s75-86.
193. Meltzer HY. Long-term effects of neuroleptic drugs on the neuroendocrine system. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1985;40:59-68.
194. Windgassen K, Wesselmann U, Schulze-Monking H. Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia in schizophrenic patients on neuroleptics: frequency and etiology. Neuropsychobiology 1996;33:142-6.
195. Ghadirian AM, Chouinard G, Annable L. Sexual dysfunction and plasma prolactin levels in neuroleptic-treated schizophrenic outpatients. J Nerv Ment Dis 1982;170:463-7.
196. Riecher-Rossler A, Hafner H, Stumbaum M, Maurer K, Schmidt R. Can estradiol modulate schizophrenic symptomatology? Schizophr Bull 1994;20:203-14.
197. Yazigi RA, Quintero CH, Salameh WA. Prolactin disorders. Fertil Steril 1997;67:215-25.
198. Magharious W, Goff DC, Amico E. Relationship of gender and menstrual status to symptoms and medication side effects in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Res 1998;77:159-66.
199. Prentice DS, Deakin JFW. Role of neuroleptic drugs and organic mechanisms in the aetiology of menstrual irregularities in schizophrenic women. Schizophr Res 1992;6:114.
200. Huber TJ, Rollnik J, Wilhelms J, von zur Muhlen A, Emrich HM, Schneider U. Estradiol levels in psychotic disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2001;26:27-53.
201. Canuso C, Hana M, Jhamb KK, Green AI. Olazanpine use in women with antipsychoticinduced hyperprolactinemia. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1458.
202. Smith S. Neuroleptic-associated hyperprolactinemia: can it be treated with bromocriptine? J Reprod Med 1992;37:737-40.
203. Tollin SR. Use of the dopamine agonist bromocriptine and cabergoline in the management of risperidone-induced hyperprolactinemia in patients with psychotic disorders. J Endocrinol Invest 2000;23:765-70.
204. Baptista T. Body weight gain induced by antipsychotic drugs: mechanisms and management. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1999;100:3-16.
205. Wirshing DA, Wirshing WC. Novel antipsychotics: comparison of weight gain liabilities. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:358-63.
206. Stanton JM. Weight gain associated with neuroleptic medication: a review. Schizophr Bull 1995;21:463-72.
207. Kinon BJ. The routine use of atypical antipsychotic agents: maintenance treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:18-22.
208. Mukherjee S, Decina P, Bocola V, Saraceni F, Scapicchio PL. Diabetes mellitus in schizophrenic patients. Compr Psychiatry 1996;37:68-73.
209. Dixon L, Weiden P, Delahanty J, Goldberg R, Postrado L, Lucksted A, et al. Prevalence and correlates of diabetes in national schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2000;26:903-12.
210. Kingsbury SJ, Fayek M, Trufasiu D, Zada J, Simpson GM. The apparent effects of ziprasidone on plasma lipids and glucose. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62:347-9.
211. Klien B, Steel RI, Simon WE, Primavera LH. Reinforcement and weight loss in schizophrenics. Psychol Rep 1972;30:581-2.
212. Umbricht D. Cognitive behavior therapy for weight gain. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:971.
213. Ball MP, Coons VB, Buchanan RW. A program for treating olanzapine-related weight gain. Psychiatr Serv 2001;52:967-9.
214. Floris M, Lejeune J, Deberdt W. Effects of amantadine on weight gain during olanzapine treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2001;11:181-2.
215. 2 antagonist nizatidine may control olanzapineassociated weight gain in schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:167-8.
216. Dursun SM, Devarajan S. Clozapine weight gain, plus topiramate weight loss. Can J Psychiatry 2000;45:198.