Gastric and duodenal ulcers during pregnancy

Gastroenterology Clinics of North America

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 263-308

  Cappell, Mitchell S ^a,b  

^a WOODHULL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b SUNY Downstate Medical Center   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; ANTACID AGENT; BISMUTH SALICYLATE; CIMETIDINE; CLARITHROMYCIN; DIAZEPAM; ESOMEPRAZOLE; FAMOTIDINE; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; IRON; LANSOPRAZOLE; METRONIDAZOLE; MIFEPRISTONE; MISOPROSTOL; NIZATIDINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OMEPRAZOLE; PANTOPRAZOLE; PARACETAMOL; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; PETHIDINE; PROSTAGLANDIN DERIVATIVE; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; RABEPRAZOLE; RANITIDINE; SIMETHICONE; SUCRALFATE; TETRACYCLINE; TOLAZOLINE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANENCEPHALUS; BLEEDING; BRADYCARDIA; CLEFT LIP PALATE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIET THERAPY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TRANSPORT; DUODENUM ULCER; ECHOGRAPHY; EMBRYOTOXICITY; ENDOSCOPY; FETOTOXICITY; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HELICOBACTER INFECTION; HELICOBACTER PYLORI; HUMAN; IRON DEFICIENCY; LIFESTYLE; METABOLIC ALKALOSIS; NEWBORN HEPATITIS; NONHUMAN; OSTEODYSTROPHY; OSTEOPENIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; STILLBIRTH; STOMACH ADENOCARCINOMA; STOMACH ULCER; TERATOGENESIS; TERATOGENICITY; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; ULCEROGENESIS;

ANTI-ULCER AGENTS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DUODENAL ULCER; ENDOSCOPY, DIGESTIVE SYSTEM; FEMALE; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; STOMACH ULCER;

EID: 0037336118     PISSN: 08898553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0889-8553(02)00063-8     Document Type: Review

References (257)

1. Brent RL. Radiation teratogenesis. Teratology 1980;21:281-98.
2. Brent RL. The effect of embryonic and fetal exposure to x-ray, microwaves and ultrasound: counseling the pregnant and nonpregnant patient about these risks. Semin Oncol 1989;16:347-68.
3. Castro LP. Reflux esophagitis as the cause of heartburn of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1967;98:1-0.
4. Marrero JM, Goggin PM, de Caestecker JS, et al. Determinants of pregnancy heartburn. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;99:731-4.
5. Truelove SC. Stilboesterol, phenobarbitone and diet in chronic duodenal ulcer. BMJ 1960;2:559-66.
6. Singer AJ, Brandt LJ. Pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract during pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86:1695-711.
7. Cuningham FG, Gant NF, Leveno KJ, et al. Gastrointestinal disorders. In: William's obstetrics. 21st edition. NewYork: McGraw-Hill;2001. p. 1273-306.
8. Hess LW, Morrison JC, Hess DB. General medical disorders during pregnancy. In: DeCherney AH, Pernoll ML, editors. Current obstetric and gynecologic diagnosis and treatment. 8th edition. Norwalk (CT): Appleton & Lange; 1994.
9. Jones PF, McEwan AB, Bernard RM. Hemorrhage and perforation complicating peptic ulcer in pregnancy. Lancet 1969;2:350-1.
10. Rubin PH, Janowitz HD. Digestive tract disorders. In: Cohen WR, editor. Cherry and Merkatz's complications of pregnancy. 5th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000. p. 305-20.
11. Tietz CA, Spellacy WN. Gastric ulcer associated with pregnancy: a case report and review of peptic ulcers and pregnancy. Lancet 1966;86:487-9.
12. Durst JB, Klieger JA. A report of a fatal hemorrhage due to peptic ulcer in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1955;70:448-51.
13. Baird RM. Peptic ulceration in pregnancy: report of a case with perforation. Can Med Assoc J 1996;94:861-2.
14. Cappell MS, Sidhom O. A multicenter, multiyear study of the safety and clinical utility of esophagogastroduodenoscopy in 20 consecutive pregnant females with follow-up of fetal outcome. Am J Gastroenterol 1993;88:1900-5.
15. Vessey MP, Villard-Mackintosh L, Painter R. Oral contraceptives and pregnancy in relation to peptic ulcer. Contraception 1992;46:349-57.
16. Borum ML. Gastrointestinal diseases in women. Med Clin North Am 1998;82:21-50.
17. Kurata JH. Epidemiology of peptic ulcer disease. In: Swabb EA, Szabo S, editors. Ulcer disease: investigation and basis for therapy. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1991. p. 31.
18. Kurata JH. Epidemiology: peptic ulcer risk factors. Semin Gastrointest Dis 1993;4:2-12.
19. DeVore GR. Acute abdominal pain in the pregnant patient due to pancreatitis, acute appendicitis, cholecystitis, or peptic ulcer disease. Clin Perinatol 1980;7:349-69.
20. Pounder R. Silent peptic ulceration: deadly silence or golden silence? Gastroenterology 1989;96:626-31.
21. Jorde R, Bostad L, Burhol PG. Asymptomatic gastric ulcer: a follow-up study in patients with previous gastric ulcer disease. Lancet 1986;1:119-20.
22. Clark DH. Peptic ulcer in women. BMJ 1953;1:1254-7.
23. Sandweiss DJ, Saltzstein HC, Farbman AA. The relation of sex hormones to peptic ulcer. Am J Dig Dis 1939;6:6-12.
24. Clark DH, Tankel HI. Gastric acid and plasma-histaminase during pregnancy. Lancet 1954;2:886-7.
25. Sandweiss DJ, Podolsky HM, Saltzstein HC, et al. Deaths from perforation and hemorrhage of gastroduodenal ulcer during pregnancy and puerperium: review of the literature and a report of one case. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1943;45:131-6.
26. Cappell MS, Colon V, Sidhom OA. A study of eight medical centers of the safety and clinical efficacy of esophagogastroduodenoscopy in 83 pregnant females with follow-up of fetal outcome and with comparison to control groups. Am J Gastroenterol 1996;91:348-54.
27. Frank B. Endoscopy in pregnancy. In: Karlstadt RG, Surawicz CM, Croitoru R, editors. Gastrointestinal disorders during pregnancy. Arlington: American College of Gastroenterology; 1994. p. 24-9.
28. Rustgi VK, Cooper JN, Colcher H. Endoscopy in the pregnant patient. In: Rustgi VK, Cooper JN, editors. Gastrointestinal and hepatic complications of pregnancy. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1986. p. 104-23.
29. McCall ML, Wechsler RL, Anzalone JT, et al. Endoscopic studies of esophagus and stomach during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1961;82:1125-33.
30. Palmer ED. Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage during pregnancy. Am J Med Sci 1961;242:223-7.
31. Dodds WJ, Dent J, Hogan WJ. Pregnancy and the lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroenterology 1978;74:1334-6.
32. Barnes LW. Serum histaminase during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1957;9:730-2.
33. Tornqvist A. The effects of exogenous histamine on the forearm blood flow in pregnant and nonpregnant women before and after inhibition of histaminase. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1968;47:391-403.
34. Honiotes G, Clark PJ, Cavanagh D. Gastric ulcer perforation during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1970;106:619-21.
35. Johnsen R, Straume B, Forde OH. Peptic ulcer and non-ulcer dyspepsia: a disease and a disorder. Scand J Prim Health Care 1988;6:239-43.
36. Lam SK, Hui WM, Ching CK. Peptic ulcer disease: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and etiology. In: Haubrich WS, Schaffner F, Berk JE, editors. Bockus gastroenterology. 5th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1995. p. 700-48.
37. Hunt JN, Murray FA. Gastric function in pregnancy. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of the British Empire 1958;65:78-83.
38. Rooney PJ, Dow TGB, Brooks PM, et al. Immunoreactive gastrin and gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975;122:834-6.
39. O'Sullivan GM, Bullingham RE. The assessment of gastric acidity and antacid effect in pregnant women by a non-invasive radiotelemetry technique. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1984;91:973-8.
40. Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS, Joshi SN, et al. Heartburn of pregnancy. Gastroenterology 1977;72:666-8.
41. McCarthy JD, Evans SO, Dragstedt LR. Gastric secretions in dogs during pregnancy and lactation. Gastroenterology 1954;27:275-80.
42. Frick G, Bremme K, Sjogren C, et al. Plasma levels of cholecystokinin and gastrin during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1990;69:317-20.
43. Waldum HL, Straume BK, Lundgren R. Serum group I pepsinogens during pregnancy. Scand J Gastroenterol 1980;15:61-3.
44. Cunningham JT. Upper gastrointestinal tract disease. In: Gleicher N, Buttino L Jr. Elkayam U, et al, editors. Principles and practice of medical therapy in pregnancy. 3rd edition. Stamford (CT): Appleton & Lange; 1998. p. 1096-102.
45. Montoneri C, Drago F. Effects of pregnancy in rats on cysteamine-induced peptic ulcers: role of progesterone. Dig Dis Sci 1997;42:2572-5.
46. Feinberg BB, Gonik B. General precepts of the immunology of pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1991;34:3-16.
47. Hussaini SH, Skidmore SJ, Richardson P, et al. Severe hepatitis E infection during pregnancy. J Viral Hepat 1997;4:51-4.
48. Warzecha Z, Dembinski A, Ceranowicz P, et al. The influence of pregnancy on the healing of chronic gastric and duodenal ulcers: the role of endogenous EGF [abstract]. Gastroenterology 1997;112:A326.
49. Michaletz-Onody PA. Peptic ulcer disease in pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1992;21:817-26.
50. Rubenstein M, Taylor M. The acute abdomen in pregnancy. In: Taylor MB, Gollan JB, Steer ML, et al, editors. Gastrointestinal emergencies. 2nd edition. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1997. p. 755-63.
51. Fielding JE. Smoking: health effects and control. N Engl J Med 1985;313:491-8.
52. Edmondson HA. Pathology of alcoholism. Am J Clin Pathol 1980;74:725-42.
53. Parkman HP, Baron TH, Richter JE, et al. Gastrointestinal motility disorders in pregnancy. In: Karlstadt RG, Surawicz CM, Croitoru R, editors. Gastrointestinal disorders during pregnancy. Arlington: American College of Gastroenterology; 1994. p. 4-14.
54. Klebanoff MA, Koslowe PA, Kaslow R, et al. Epidemiology of vomiting in early pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:612-6.
55. Tierson FD, Olsen CL, Hook EB. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and association with pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;155:1017-22.
56. Hanson JS, McCallum RW. The diagnosis and management of nausea and vomiting: a review. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80:210-8.
57. Corlett RC, Mishell DR. Pancreatitis in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972;113:281-90.
58. Ordorica SA, Frieden FJ, Marks F, et al. Pancreatic enzyme activity in pregnancy. J Reprod Med 1991;36:359-62.
59. Strickland DM, Hauth JC, Widish J, et al. Amylase and isoamylase activities in serum of pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:389-91.
60. Sharp HT. Gastrointestinal surgical conditions during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1994;37:306-15.
61. Babakniia A, Parsa H, Woodruff JD. Appendicitis during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1977;50:40-4.
62. Richards C, Daya S. Diagnosis of acute appendicitis in pregnancy. Can J Surg 1989;32:358-60.
63. Miller JP. Diseases of the liver and alimentary tract. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1977;4:297-317.
64. Bjorkman DJ, Burt RW, Tolman KG. Primary care of women with gastrointestinal disorders. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1988;31:974-88.
65. Bynum TE. Hepatic and gastrointestinal disorders during pregnancy. Med Clin North Am 1977;61:129-38.
66. Steinlauf AF, Traube M. Gastrointestinal complications. In: Burrow GN, Duffy TP, editors. Medical complications during pregnancy. 5th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999. p. 255-68.
67. Zimmermann EM, Christman GM. Approach to gastrointestinal disease in the female patient. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Powell DW, et al., editors. Textbook of gastroenterology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 1059-80.
68. Martin C, Varner MW. Physiologic changes in pregnancy: surgical implications. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1994;37:241-55.
69. Krueger KJ, Hoffman BJ. Radiation exposure during gastroenterological fluoroscopy: risk assessment for pregnant workers. Am J Gastroenterol 1992;87:429-31.
70. Kim-Lo SH, Ciliberto CF, Smiley RM. Anesthesia: principles and techniques. In: Cohen WR, editor. Cherry and Merkatz's complications of pregnancy. 5th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000. p. 853-71.
71. Safra MJ, Oakley Jr GP. Association between cleft lip with of without cleft palate and prenatal exposure to diazepam. Lancet 1975;2:478-80.
72. Cappell MS. The safety of gastrointestinal endoscopy in high risk patients. Dig Dis 1996;14:228-44.
73. Lieberman DA, Wuerker CK, Katon RM. Cardiopulmonary risk of esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Gastroenterology 1985;88:468-72.
74. Murray AW, Morran CG, Kenny GNC, et al. Examination of cardiorespiratory changes during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Anesthesia 1991;46:181-4.
75. Pristautz H, Biffl H, Leitner W, et al. Influence of antiarrhythmic premedication and the development of premature ventricular contractions during fiberoptic gastroduodenoscopy. Endoscopy 1981;13:57-9.
76. DiSario JA, Waring JP, Talbert G, et al. Monitoring of blood pressure and heart rate during routine endoscopy: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86:956-60.
77. Dark DS, Campbell DR, Wesselius LJ. Arterial oxygen desaturation during gastrointestinal endoscopy. Am J Gastroenterol 1990;85:1317-21.
78. Kinoshita Y, Ishido S, Nishiyama K, et al. Arterial oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and pulse rate during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy: influence of sedation and age. J Clin Gastroenterol 1991;13:656-60.
79. Rozen P, Fireman Z, Gilat T. The causes of hypoxemia in elderly patients during endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 1982;28:243-6.
80. Esposito TJ. Trauma during pregnancy. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1994;12:167-99.
81. Kammerer WS. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. Med Clin North Am 1979;63:11157-64.
82. Laegreid L, Olegard R, Walstrom J, et al. Teratogenic effects of benzodiazepine use during pregnancy. J Pediatr 1989;114:126-31.
83. Rosenberg L, Mitchell AA, Parsells JL, et al. Lack of relation of oral clefts to diazepam use during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1983;309:1282-5.
84. Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. 6th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002.
85. Cuningham FG, Gant NF, Leveno KJ, et al. Analgesia and sedation. In: William's Obstetrics. 21st edition. NewYork: McGraw-Hill; 2001. p. 537-63.
86. Belfrage P, Boreus LO, Hartvig P, et al. Neonatal depression after obstetrical analgesia with pethidine: the role of injection-delivery time interval and the plasma concentrations of pethidine and norpethidine. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1981;60:43-8.
87. Morrison JC, Wiser WL, Rosser SI, et al. Metabolites of meperidine related to fetal depression. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;115:1132-7.
88. Simon IB, Lewis RJ, Satava RM. A safe method for sedating and monitoring patients for upper and lower endoscopy. Am Surg 1991;57:219-21.
89. Esposito TJ, Gens DR, Simth LG, et al. Trauma during pregnancy: a review of 79 cases. Arch Surg 1991;126:1073-8.
90. Modigliani R, Bernades P. Gastrointestinal and pancreatic diseases. In: Barron WM, Lindheimer MD, Davison JM, editors. Medical disorders during pregnancy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1995. p. 271-83.
91. Wenstrom KD, Malee MP. Medical and surgical complications of pregnancy. In: Scott JR, Disaia PJ, Hammond CB, et al, editors. Danforth's obstetrics and gynecology. 8th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 327-61.
92. Sontag SJ. The medical management of reflux esophagitis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1990;19:683-712.
93. Ching C, Lam S. Antacids: indications and limitations. Drugs 1994;47:305-17.
94. Peterson WL, Sturdevant RA, Frankl HD, et al. Healing of duodenal ulcer with an antacid regimen. N Engl J Med 1977;297:341-5.
95. Broussard CN, Richter JE. Treating gastro-oesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy and lactation: what are the safest therapy options? Drug Saf 1998;19:325-7.
96. Land GD, Dougall A. Comparative study of Algicon suspension and magnesium trisilicate mixture in the treatment of reflux dyspepsia of pregnancy. Br J Clin Pract 1989;66(Suppl):48-51.
97. Witter FR, King TM, Blake DA. The effects of chronic gastrointestinal medication on the fetus and neonate. Obstet Gynecol 1981;58(Suppl):79s-84s.
98. Landon MB. Gastrointestinal disease. In: Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL, editors. Obstetrics: normal and problem pregnancies. 3rd edition. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1996. p. 1126-33.
99. Lewis JH, Weingold AB. The Committee on FDA-Related Matters, American College of Gastroenterology. The use of gastrointestinal drugs during pregnancy and lactation. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80:919-23.
100. Larson JD, Patatanian E, Miner PB Jr, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of ranitidine for gastroesophageal reflux symptoms during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:83-7.
101. Rayburn W, Liles E, Christensen H, et al. Antacids vs. antacids plus non-prescription ranitidine for heartburn during pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1999;66:35-7.
102. McCarthy DM. Drug therapy. Sucralfate. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1017-25.
103. Banerjee S, el-Omar E, Mowat A, et al. Sucralfate suppresses Helicobacter pylori infection and reduces gastric acid secretion by 50% in patients with duodenal ulcer. Gastroenterology 1996;110:717-24.
104. Fisher RS. Sucralfate: a review of drug tolerance and safety. J Clin Gastroenterol 1981;3(Suppl 2):181-4.
105. Lione A. Aluminum toxicology and the aluminum-containing medications. Pharmacol Ther 1985;29:255-85.
106. McCormack KM, Ottosen LD, Sanger VL, et al. Effect of parenteral administration of aluminum and parathyroid hormone on fetal development in the rat. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1979;161:74-7.
107. Yokel RA. Toxicity of gestational aluminum exposure to the maternal rabbit and offspring. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1985;79:121-33.
108. Sedman AB, Klein GL, Merritt RJ, et al. Evidence of aluminum loading in infants receiving intravenous therapy. N Engl J Med 1985;312:1337-43.
109. Physician's Desk Reference. 56th edition. Montvale {NJ}: Medical Economics; 2002.
110. Golding J, Rowland A, Greenwood R, et al. Aluminum sulphate in water in north Cornwall and outcome of pregnancy. BMJ 1991;302:1175-7.
111. Ranchet G, Gangemi O, Petrone M. Sucralfate in the treatment of gravidic pyrosis. Giornale Italiano di Obstetricia e Ginecologia 1990;12:1-6.
112. Charan M, Katz PO. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in pregnancy. Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology 2001;4:73-81.
113. Jones DB, Howden CW, Burget DW, et al. Acid suppression in duodenal ulcer: a meta-analysis to define optimal dosing with antisecretory drugs. Gut 1987;28:1120-7.
114. 2-receptor antagonist by the human and baboon placenta. Am J Med Sci 1988;295:198-206.
115. Johnston JR, Moore J, McCaughey W, et al. Use of cimetidine as an oral antacid in obstetric anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1983;62:720-6.
116. McAuley DM, Moore J, McCaughey W, et al. Ranitidine as an antacid before elective caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1983;38:108-14.
117. Schenker S, Dicke J, Johnson RF, et al. Human placental transport of cimetidine. J Clin Invest 1987;80:1428-34.
118. 2 receptor antagonist. Gastroenterology 1978;74:339-47.
119. Shepard TH. Catalogue of teratogenic agents. 6th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1989.
120. Anand S, Van Thiel DH. Prenatal and neonatal exposure to cimetidine results in gonadal and sexual dysfunction in adult males. Science 1982;218:493-4.
121. Parker S, Scade RR, Pohl CR. Prenatal and neonatal exposure of male rat pups to cimetidine but not ranitidine adversely affects subsequent adult sexual functioning. Gastroenterology 1984;86:675-80.
122. Pinelli P, Trivulzio S, Colombo R, et al. Antiprostatic effect of cimetidine in rats. Agents and Actions 1987;22:197-201.
123. Shapiro BH, Hirst SA, Babalola GO, et al. Prospective study on the sexual development of male and female rats perinatally exposed to maternally administered cimetidine. Toxicol Lett 1988;44:315-29.
124. Walker TF, Bott JH, Bond BC. Cimetidine does not demasculinize male rat offspring exposed in utero. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 1987;8:188-97.
125. Kallen B. Delivery outcome after the use of acid-suppressing drugs in early pregnancy with special reference to omeprazole. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:877-81.
126. Ruigomez A, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Cattaruzzi C, et al. Use of cimetidine, omeprazole, and ranitidine in pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:476-81.
127. Zulli P, Di Niso Q. Cimetidine treatment during pregnancy [letter]. Lancet 1978;2:945-6.
128. Glade G, Saccar CL, Pereira GR. Cimetidine in pregnancy: apparent transient liver impairment in the newborn. Am J Dis Child 1980;134:87-8.
129. Hodgkinson R, Glassenberg R, Joyce III TH, et al. Comparison of cimetidine (Tagamet) with antacid for safety and effectiveness in reducing gastric acidity before elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology 1983;59:86-90.
130. McAuley DM, Halliday HL, Johnston JR, et al. Cimetidine in labour: absence of adverse effect on the high-risk fetus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;92:350-5.
131. Kuint J, Linder N, Reichman B. Hypoxemia associated with cimetidine therapy in a newborn infant. Am J Perinatol 1996;13:301-3.
132. Higashida N, Kamada S, Sakanoue M, et al. Teratogenicity studies on ranitidine hydrochloride in rats. J Toxicol Sci 1983;8(Suppl):101-22.
133. 2 blockers: a prospective cohort study. Dig Dis Sci 1996;41:1145-9.
134. Kennie N, Por CP, Evans MF. Does ranitidine work for gastroesophageal symptoms during pregnancy?. Can Fam Physician 1998;44:761-2.
135. Ikenoue T, Iito J, Matsuda Y, et al. Effects of ranitidine on maternal gastric juice and neonates when administered prior to caesarean section. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1991;5:315-8.
136. McAuley DM, Moore J, Dundee JW, et al. Preliminary report on the use of ranitidine as an antacid in obstetrics. Ir J Med Sci 1982;151:91-2.
137. Burek JD, Majka JA, Bokelman DL. Famotidine: summary of preclinicial safety assessment. Digestion 1985;32(Suppl 1):7-14.
138. Shibata M, Kawano K, Shiobara Y, et al. Reproductive studies on famotidine (YM 11170) in rats and rabbits. Oyo Yakuri Pharmacometrics 1983;26:489-97, 543-78, 831-40.
139. Savarino V, Giusti M, Scalabrini P, et al. Famotidine has no significant effect on gonadal function in man. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1988;12:19-22.
140. Morton DM. Pharmacology and toxicity of nizatidine. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22(Suppl):1-8.
141. 2-receptor antagonist, nizatidine (LY139037), in the male rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1990;102:219-32.
142. 2-receptor antagonist: acute, subchronic, and chronic toxicity evaluations. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 1989;13:778-92.
143. 2 antagonist therapy. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22(Suppl 136):24-8.
144. McFarland RJ, Bateson MC, Green JR, et al. Omeprazole provides quicker symptom relief and duodenal ulcer healing than ranitidine. Gastroenterology 1990;98:278-83.
145. Qasim A, O'Morain CA. Review article: treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection and factors influencing eradication. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002;16(Suppl):24-30.
146. Ching MS, Morgan DJ, Mihaly GW, et al. Placental transfer of omeprazole in maternal and fetal sheep. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1986;9:323-31.
147. Moore J, Flynn RJ, Sampaio M, et al. Effect of single-dose omeprazole on intragastric acidity and volume during obstetric anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1989;44:559-62.
148. Lin CJ, Huang CL, Hsu HW, et al. Prophylaxis against acid aspiration in regional anesthesia for elective cesarean section: a comparison between oral single-dose ranitidine, famotidine and omeprazole assessed with fiberoptic gastric aspiration. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin 1996;34:179-84..
149. Orr DA, Bill KM, Gillon KR, et al. Effects of omeprazole, with and without metoclopramide, in elective obstetric anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1993;48:114-9.
150. Rocke DA, Rout CC, Gouws E. Intravenous administration of the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole reduces the risk of acid aspiration at emergency cesarean section. Anesth Analg 1994;78:1093-8.
151. Stuart JC, Kan AF, Rowbottom SJ, et al. Acid aspiration prophylaxis for emergency caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1996;51:415-21.
152. Tripathi A, Somwanshi M, Singh B, et al. A comparison of intravenous ranitidine and omeprazole on gastric volume and pH in women undergoing emergency caesarean section. Can J Anaesth 1995;42:797-800.
153. Kallen BA. Use of omeprazole during pregnancy: no hazard demonstrated in 955 infants exposed during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001;96:63-8.
154. Lalkin A, Loebstein R, Addis A, et al. The safety of omeprazole during pregnancy: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:727-30.
155. Brunner G, Meyer H, Athmann C. Omeprazole for peptic ulcer disease in pregnancy. Digestion 1998;59:651-4.
156. Nielsen GL, Sorensen HT, Thulstrup AM, et al. The safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999;13:1085-9.
157. Wilton LV, Pearce GL, Martin RM, et al. The outcomes of pregnancy in women exposed to newly marketed drugs in general practice in England. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:882-9.
158. Ezeh UO, Narayan H. Pregnancy does not offer protection against Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996;75:302-4.
159. Glasbrenner B, Swobodnik W, Malfertheiner P, et al. Severe hyperemesis gravidarum: pathophysiologic observations and new therapeutic approach. Z Gastroenterol 1991;29:163-6.
160. Harper MA, McVeigh JE, Thompson W, et al. Successful pregnancy in association with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:863-4.
161. Marshall JK, Thompson AB, Armstrong D. Omeprazole for refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy and lactation. Can J Gastroenterol 1998;12:225-7.
162. Tsirigotis M, Yazdani N, Craft I. Potential effects of omeprazole in pregnancy. Hum Reprod 1995;10:2177-8.
163. Smallwood RA, Berlin RG, Castagnolli N,et al. Safety of acid-suppressing drugs. Dig Dis Sci 1995;40(Suppl):63S-80S.
164. Schardein JL, Furuhashi T, Ooshima Y. Reproductive and developmental toxicity studies of lansoperazole (AG-1749) in rats and rabbits. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 1990;18(Suppl):1 19-29.
165. Hopkins RJ, Girardi LS, Turney EA. Relationship between Helicobacter pylori eradication and reduced duodenal and gastric ulcer recurrence: a review. Gastroenterology 1996;110:1244-52.
166. Jacobi P, Neiger R, Merzbach D, et al. Single-dose antimicrobial therapy in the treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:1148-52.
167. Masterton RG, Evans DC, Strike PW. Single-dose amoxicillin in the treatment of bacteriuria in pregnancy and the puerperium: a controlled clinical trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;92:498-505.
168. Heinonen OP, Slone D, Shapiro S. Birth defects and drugs in pregnancy. Littleton (MA): Publishing Sciences Group; 1977.
169. Schick B, Hom M, Librizzi R, et al. Pregnancy outcome following exposure to clarithromycin [abstract]. Abstracts of the Ninth International Conference of the Organization of Teratology Information Services, May 2-4, 1996, Salt Lake City, Utah. Reprod Toxicol 1996;10:162.
170. Einarson A, Phillips E, Mawji F, et al. A prospective controlled multicentre study of clarithromycin in pregnancy. Am J Perinatol 1998;15:523-5.
171. Jacoby EB, Porter KB. Helicobacter pylori infection and persistent hyperemesis gravidarum. Am J Perinatol 1999;16:85-8.
172. Menge H, Brosius B, Lang A, et al. Bismuth absorption from the stomach and small intestine. Gastroenterology 1992;102:2192-3.
173. James LF, Lazar VA, Binns W. Effects of sublethal doses of certain minerals on pregnant ewes and fetal development. Am J Vet Res 1966;27:132-5.
174. Levy G, Procknal JA, Garrettson LK. Distribution of salicylate between neonatal and maternal serum at diffusion equilibrium. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975;18:210-4.
175. Bleyer WA, Strauss RG, Tuberville DF, et al. Maternally ingested salicylate as a cause of neonatal hemorrhage [letter]. J Pediatr 1974;85:736-7.
176. Shapiro S, Siskind V, Monson RR, et al. Perinatal mortality and birth-weight in relation to aspirin taken during pregnancy. Lancet 1976;1:1375-6.
177. Turner G, Collins E. Fetal effects of regular salicylate ingestion in pregnancy. Lancet 1975;2:338-9.
178. Guilbeau Jr JA, Schoenbach EB, Schaub IG, et al. Aureomycin in obstetrics: therapy and prophylaxis. JAMA 1950;143:520-6.
179. Genot MT, Golan HP, Porter PJ, et al. Effect of administration of tetracycline in pregnancy on the primary dentition of the offspring. Journal of Oral Medicine 1970;25:75-9.
180. Wenk RE, Gebhardt FC, Bhagavan BS, et al. Tetracycline-associated fatty liver of pregnancy, including possible pregnancy risk after chronic dermatologic use of tetracycline. J Reprod Med 1981;26:135-41.
181. Harley JD, Farrar JF, Gray JB, et al. Aromatic drugs and congenital cataracts. Lancet 1964;1:472-3.
182. Heisterberg L. Placental transfer of metronidazole in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Perinat Med 1984;12:43-5.
183. Thapa PB, Whitlock JA, Brockman Worrell KG, et al. Prenatal exposure to metronidazole and risk of childhood cancer: a retrospective cohort study of children younger than 5 years. Cancer 1998;83:1461-8.
184. Berget A, Weber T. Metronidazole and pregnancy. Ugeskr Laeger 1972;134:2085-9.
185. Rosa FW, Baum C, Shaw M. Pregnancy outcomes after first-trimester vaginitis drug therapy. Obstet Gynecol 1987;69:751-5.
186. Piper JM, Mitchel EF, Ray WA. Prenatal use of metronidazole and birth defects: no association. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:348-52.
187. Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M. A population based case-control teratologic study of oral metronidazole treatment during pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:322-7.
188. Sorensen HT, Larsen H, Jensen ES, et al. Safety of metronidazole during pregnancy: a cohort study of risk of congenital abnormalities, preterm delivery and low birth weight in 124 women. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999;44:854-6.
189. Beard CM, Noller KL, O'Fallon WM, et al. Lack of evidence for cancer due to use of metronidazole. N Engl J Med 1979;301:519-22.
190. Antimicrobial therapy for obstetric patients. Educational bulletin #245. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Washington, DC; March 1998.
191. Misoprostol. Med Lett Drugs Ther 1989;31:21-2.
192. Norman JE, Thong KJ, Baird DT. Uterine contractility and induction of abortion in early pregnancy by misoprostol and mifepristone. Lancet 1991;338:1233-6.
193. Schonhofer PS. Brazil: misuse of misoprostol as an abortifacient may induce malformations. Lancet 1991;337:1534-5.
194. Peyron R, Aubeny E, Targosz V, et al. Early termination of pregnancy with mifepristone (RU 486) and the orally active prostaglandin misoprostol. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1509-13.
195. Schuler L, Pastuszak A, Sanseverino MTV, et al. Pregnancy outcome after exposure to misoprostol in Brazil: a prospective, controlled study. Reprod Toxicol 1999;13:147-51.
196. Coelho HLL, Teixeira AC, Santos AP, et al. Misoprostol and illegal abortion in Fortaleza. Brazil. Lancet 1993;341:1261-3.
197. Costa SH, Vessey MP. Misoprostol and illegal abortion in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. Lancet 1993;341:1258-61.
198. Fonseca W, Alencar AJC, Mota FSB, et al. Misoprostol and congenital malformations. Lancet 1991;338:56.
199. Gonzalez CH, Vargas FR, Perez ABA, et al. Limb deficiency with or without Mobius sequence in seven Brazilian children associated with misoprostol use in the first trimester of pregnancy. Am J Med Genet 1993;47:59-64.
200. Pastuszak AL, Schuler L, Speck-Martins CE, et al. Use of misoprostol during pregnancy and Mobius' syndrome in infants. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1881-5.
201. Gonzalez CH, Marques-Dias MJ, et al. Congenital abnormalities in Brazilian children associated with misoprostol misuse in first trimester of pregnancy. Lancet 1998;351:1624-7.
202. Vargas FR, Schuler-Faccini L, Brunoni D, et al. Prenatal exposure to misoprostol and vascular disruption defects: a case-control study. Am J Med Genet 2000;95:302-6.
203. Koren G, Schuler L. Taking drugs during pregnancy: how safe are the unsafe? Can Fam Physician 2001;47:951-3.
204. Orioli IM, Castilla EE. Epidemiological assessment of misoprostol teratogenicity. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2000;107:519-23.
205. Jacobson J, Bergquist C, Rydnert J, et al. No abortion-inducing effect of the ulcer-healing dose of the synthetic prostaglandin E2 analogue enprostil in first trimester. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1990;69:135-8.
206. Morgner A, Bayerdorffer E, Neubauer A, et al. Malignant tumors of the stomach: gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma and Helicobacter pylori. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2000;29:593-607.
207. Slater G, Aufses AH. Surgical aspects of pregnancy. In: Cherry SH, Berkowitz RL, Kase NG, editors. Rovinsky and Guttmacher's medical, surgical, and gynecologic complications of pregnancy. 3rd edition. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1985. p. 656-63.
208. Becker-Andersen H, Husfeldt V. Peptic ulcer in pregnancy: report of two cases of surgically treated bleeding duodenal ulcer. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1971;50:391-5.
209. Lee M, Feldman M. Nausea and vomiting. In: Feldman M, Sleisenger MH, Scharschmidt BF, editors. Sleisenger and Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. 6th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998. p. 117-27.
210. Burkitt R. Perforated peptic ulcer in late pregnancy. BMJ 1961;2:938-9.
211. Tew WL, Holliday RL, Phibbs G. Perforated duodenal ulcer in pregnancy with double survival. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;125:1151-2.
212. Winchester DP, Bancroft BR. Perforated peptic ulcer in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966;94:280-1.
213. Janower ML, Lintom OW, editors. Radiation risk: a primer. Reston (VA): American College of Radiology, Commission on Physics and Radiation Safety, Committee on Radiology Units, Standards and Protection; 1996.
214. Paul M, Tew WL, Holliday RL. Perforated peptic ulcer in pregnancy with survival of mother and child: case report and review of the literature. Can J Surg 1976;19:427-9.
215. Sugawa C, Joseph AL. Endoscopic interventional management of bleeding duodenal and gastric ulcers. Surg Clin North Am 1992;72:317-34.
216. Potzi R, Ferenci P, Gangl A. Endoscopic sclerotherapy of esophageal varices during pregnancy: case report. Z Gastroenterol 1991;29:246-7.
217. Macedo G, Carvalho L, Ribeiro T. Endoscopic sclerotherapy for upper gastrointestinal bleeding due to Mallory-Weiss syndrome [letter]. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:1364-5.
218. Fiest TC, Foong A, Chokhavatia S. Successful balloon dilation of achalasia during pregnancy. Gastrointest Endsoc 1993;39:810-2.
219. Megraud F, Brassens-Rabbe MP, Denis F, et al. Seroepidemiology of Campylobacter pylori infection in various populations. J Clin Microbiol 1989;27:1870-3.
220. Blecker U, Lanciers S, Hauser B, et al. The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori positivity in a symptom-free population aged 1 to 40 years. J Clin Epidemiol 1994;47:1095-8.
221. Lanciers S, Despinasse B, Mehta DI, et al. Increased susceptibility to Helicobacter pylori infection in pregnancy. Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1999;7:195-8.
222. Blecker U, Lanciers S, Keppens E, et al. Evolution of Helicobacter pylori positivity in infants born from positive mothers. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1994;19:87-90.
223. Gold BD, Khanna B, Huang LM, et al. Helicobacter pylori acquisition in infancy after decline of maternal passive immunity. Pediatr Res 1997;41:641-6.
224. Kitagawa M, Natori M, Katoh M, et al. Maternal transmission of Helicobacter pylori in the perinatal period. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2001;27:225-30.
225. Gimovsky ML, Montoro M. Systemic lupus erythematosus and other connective tissue diseases during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1991;34:35-50.
226. Ostensen M, Ostensen H. Safety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnant patients with rheumatic disease. J Rheumatol 1996;23:1045-9.
227. Klipple GL, Cecere FA. Rheumatoid arthritis and pregnancy. Rheum Clin North Am 1989;15:213-40.
228. Ostensen M. Optimization of antirheumatic drug treatment in pregnancy. Clin Pharmacokinet 1994;27:486-503.
229. Ostensen M, Husby G. Ankylosing spondylitis and pregnancy. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1989;15:241-54.
230. Fries JF, Miller SR, Spitz PW, et al. Toward an epidemiology of gastropathy associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use. Gastroenterology 1989;96:647-55.
231. Zfass AM, McHenry L, Sanyal AJ. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced gastroduodenal lesions: prophylaxis and treatment. Gastroenterologist 1993;1:165-9.
232. Graham DY, White RH, Moreland LW, et al. Duodenal and gastric ulcer prevention with misoprostol in arthritis patients taking NSAIDs. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:257-62.
233. Cappell MS, Garcia A. Gastric and duodenal ulcers during pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1998;27:169-95.
234. Paraskevaides EC, Wilson MC. Near-fatal peptic ulceration and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): two case reports. British Journal of Clinical Practice 1990;44:421-2.
235. Baker PN, Williamson JG, Louden KA. Possible low-dose-aspirin-induced gastropathy [letter]. Lancet 1992;339:550.
236. Eckert N. Stress ulcer as cause of acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage at the end of pregnancy with eclampsia. Zentralbl Gynakol 1969;91:1478-83.
237. Opitz C. The acute perforation of stress ulcer in puerperium following eclampsia: case report. Zentrabl Gynakol 1971;93:388-90.
238. Thieme R, Theisinger W. Stress ulcer in the puerperium. Zentralb Gynakol 1971;93:894-7.
239. Gwinn M, Pappaioanou M, George JR, et al. Prevalence of HIV infection in childbearing women in the United States: surveillance using newborn blood samples. JAMA 1991;265:1704-8.
240. McGuigan JE. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome and other hypersecretory states. In: Feldman M, Sleisenger MH, Scharschmidt BF, editors. Sleisenger and Fordtran's gastrointestinal disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. 6th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998. p. 679-95.
241. Stewart CA, Termanini B, Sutliff VE, et al. Management of the Zollinger-Ellison syndrome in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:224-33.
242. 2-receptor antagonist. N Engl J Med 1984;310:758-61.
243. McArthur KE, Collen MJ, Maton PN, et al. Omeprazole: effective convenient therapy for Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Gastroenterology 1985;88:939-44.
244. Lo SST, Ferguson SA, Lee CP, et al. Carcinoma of stomach complicating pregnancy. J Clin Gastroenterol 1996;23:299-304.
245. Maeta M, Yamashiro H, Oka A, et al. Gastric cancer in the young, with special reference to 14 pregnancy-associated cases: analysis based on 2,325 consecutive cases of gastric cancer. J Surg Oncol 1995;58:191-5.
246. Chan YM, Ngai SW, Lao TT. Gastric adenocarcinoma presenting with persistent, mild gastrointestinal symptoms in pregnancy: a case report. J Reprod Med 1999;44:986-8.
247. Kodama I, Takeda J, Koufuji K, et al. Gastric cancer during pregnancy. Kurume Med J 1997;44:179-83.
248. Chou MM, Ho ES, Lin NF, et al. Color Doppler sonographic appearance of a Krukenberg tumor in pregnancy. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1998;11:459-60.
249. McGill FM, Ritter DB, Rickard CS, et al. Krukenberg tumors: can management be improved? Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;48:61-5.
250. Ueo H, Matsuoka H, Tamura S, et al. Prognosis in gastric cancer associated with pregnancy. World J Surg 1991;15:293-7.
251. Fazeny B, Marosi C. Gastric cancer as an essential differential diagnosis of minor epigastric discomfort during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1998;77:469-71.
252. Furukawa H, Iwanaga T, Hiratsuka M, et al. Gastric cancer in young adults: growth accelerating effect of pregnancy and delivery. J Surg Oncol 1994;55:3-6.
253. Jaspers VK, Gillessen A, Quakernack K. Gastric cancer in pregnancy: do pregnancy, age or female sex alter the prognosis? Case reports and review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1999;87:13-22.
254. Ayestaran C, Matorras R, Ramon O, et al. Fulminating gastric cancer in a pregnant woman, after 18 weeks of gestation, recipient of oocytes. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000;79:86-7.
255. Valente PT, Fine BA, Parra C, et al. Gastric stromal tumor with peritoneal nodules in pregnancy: tumor spread or rare variant of diffuse leiomyomatosis. Gynecol Oncol 1996;63:392-7.
256. Wiersema AM, Wobbes T, Pruszczynski M, et al. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the stomach during pregnancy: A case report. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998;80:71-3.
257. Federal Register 1980;44:37434-67.