Leptomeningeal metastases

Neurologic Clinics

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 25-66

  Kesari, Santosh ^a   Batchelor, Tracy T ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADVANCED CANCER; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN METASTASIS; CANCER SURVIVAL; CLINICAL FEATURE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW;

HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MENINGEAL NEOPLASMS; QUALITY OF LIFE;

EID: 0037309784     PISSN: 07338619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0733-8619(02)00032-4     Document Type: Review

References (306)

1. Lee JY, Bergmann M, Kuchelmeister K, et al. Metastasizing extraneural tumors along the CSF pathway. Clin Neuropathol 1997;16:117-21.
2. Chamberlain MC. Leptomeningeal metastases: a review of evaluation and treatment. J Neurooncol 1998;37:271-84.
3. Chamberlain MC. Neoplastic meningitis: a guide to diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Neurol 2000;13:641-8.
4. DeAngelis LM. Current diagnosis and treatment of leptomeningeal metastasis. J Neurooncol 1998;38:245-52.
5. Grossman SA, Spence A. NCCN clinical practice guidelines for carcinomatous/lymphomatous meningitis. Oncology 1999;13:144-52.
6. Little JR, Dale AJ, Okazaki H. Meningeal carcinomatosis. Clinical manifestations. Arch Neurol 1974;30:138-43.
7. Olson ME, Chernik NL, Posner JB. Infiltration of the leptomeninges by systemic cancer. A clinical and pathologic study. Arch Neurol 1974;30:122-37.
8. Olson ME, Chernik NL, Posner JB. Leptomeningeal metastasis from systemic cancer: a report of 47 cases. Trans Am Neurol Assoc 1971;96:291-3.
9. Sagar SM. Carcinomatous meningitis: it does not have to be a death sentence. Oncology 2002;16:237-43.
10. Wasserstrom WR, Glass JP, Posner JB. Diagnosis and treatment of leptomeningeal metastases from solid tumors: experience with 90 patients. Cancer 1982;49:759-72.
11. Wolfgang G, Marcus D, Ulrike S. LC: clinical syndrome in different primaries. J Neurooncol 1998;38:103-10.
12. Eberth CJ. Zur entwickelung des epitheliomas (cholesteatomas) der pia und der lung. Virchows Arch 1870;49:51-63.
13. Grossman SA, Moynihan TJ. Neoplastic meningitis. Neurol Clin 1991;9:843-56.
14. Boogerd W. Central nervous system metastasis in breast cancer. Radiother Oncol 1996;40:5-22.
15. Chamberlain MC, Kormanik P. Leptomeningeal metastasis. J Neurosurg 1997;86:576-7.
16. Nugent JL, Bunn PA Jr, Matthews MJ, et al. CNS metastases in small cell bronchogenic carcinoma: increasing frequency and changing pattern with lengthening survival. Cancer 1979;44:1885-93.
17. Zachariah B, Zachariah SB, Varghese R, et al. Carcinomatous meningitis: clinical manifestations and management. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995;33:7-12.
18. Johnson JD, Young B. Demographics of brain metastasis. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1996;7:337-44.
19. Kaplan JG, DeSouza TG, Farkash A, et al. Leptomeningeal metastases: comparison of clinical features and laboratory data of solid tumors, lymphomas and leukemias. J Neurooncol 1990;9:225-9.
20. Nussbaum ES, Djalilian HR, Cho KH, et al. Brain metastases. Histology, multiplicity, surgery, and survival. Cancer 1996;78:1781-8.
21. Patchell RA, Posner JB. Neurologic complications of systemic cancer. Neurol Clin 1985;3:729-50.
22. Herman TS, Hammond N, Jones SE, et al. Involvement of the central nervous system by non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: the Southwest Oncology Group experience. Cancer 1979; 43:390-7.
23. Litam JP, Cabanillas F, Smith TL, et al. Central nervous system relapse in malignant lymphomas: risk factors and implications for prophylaxis. Blood 1979;54:1249-57.
24. MacKintosh FR, Colby TV, Podolsky WJ, et al. Central nervous system involvement in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: an analysis of 105 cases. Cancer 1982;49:586-95.
25. Meyer RJ, Ferreira PP, Cuttner J, et al. Central nervous system involvement at presentation in acute granulocytic leukemia. A prospective cytocentrifuge study. Am J Med 1980;68:691-4.
26. Stewart DJ, Keating MJ, McCredie KB, et al. Natural history of central nervous system acute leukemia in adults. Cancer 1981;47:184-96.
27. Glass JP, Melamed M, Chernik NL, et al. Malignant cells in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): the meaning of a positive CSF cytology. Neurology 1979;29:1369-75.
28. Arita N, Taneda M, Hayakawa T. Leptomeningeal dissemination of malignant gliomas. Incidence, diagnosis and outcome. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1994; 126:84-92.
29. Fouladi M, Gajjar A, Boyett JM, et al. Comparison of CSF cytology and spinal magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of leptomeningeal disease in pediatric medulloblastoma or primitive neuroectodermal tumor. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:3234-7.
30. Johnson DL, Schwarz S. Intracranial metastases from malignant spinal-cord astrocytoma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1987;66:621-5.
31. Khoshyomn S, Lew SM, Braff SP. Sugarcoating: leptomeningeal spread of medulloblastoma. Pediatr Neurosurg 2000;33:333.
32. Yung WA, Horten BC, Shapiro WR. Meningeal gliomatosis: a review of 12 cases. Ann Neurol 1980;8:605-8.
33. Amer MH, Al-Sarraf M, Baker LH, et al. Malignant melanoma and central nervous system metastases: incidence, diagnosis, treatment and survival. Cancer 1978;42: 660-8.
34. Rosen ST, Aisner J, Makuch RW, et al. Carcinomatous leptomeningitis in small cell lung cancer: a clinicopathologic review of the National Cancer Institute experience. Medicine (Baltimore) 1982;61:45-53.
35. Aroney RS, Dalley DN, Chan WK, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis in small cell carcinoma of the lung. Am J Med 1981;71:26-32.
36. Yap HY, Yap BS, Tashima CK, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis in breast cancer. Cancer 1978;42:283-6.
37. Deeb LS, Yamout BI, Shamseddine AI, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis as the presenting manifestation of gastric adenocarcinoma. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:329-31.
38. Higes-Pascual F, Beroiz-Groh P, Bravo-Guillen AI, et al. Leptomeningeal carcinomatosis as presenting symptom of a gallbladder carcinoma. Rev Neurol 2000;30:841-4.
39. Huffman JL, Yeatman TJ, Smith JB. Leptomeningeal carcinomatosis: a sequela of cholangiocarcinoma. Am Surg 1997;63:310-3.
40. Morrison C, Shah S, Flinn IW. Leptomeningeal involvement in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer Pract 1998;6:223-8.
41. Mulligan MJ, Vasu R, Grossi CE, et al. Neoplastic meningitis with eosinophilic pleocytosis in Hodgkin's disease: a case with cerebellar dysfunction and a review of the literature. Am J Med Sci 1988;296:322-6.
42. Orlowski EP, Hansen RM, Anderson T, et al. Hodgkin's disease with leptomeningeal involvement. Report of a case with long survival. Cancer 1984;53:1833-5.
43. Chua SL, Seymour JF, Prince HM. Deafness from eighth cranial nerve involvement in a patient with large-cell transformation of mycosis fungoides. Eur J Haematol 2000; 64:340-3.
44. Lundberg WB, Cadman EC, Skeel RT. Leptomeningeal mycosis fungoides. Cancer 1976;38:2149-53.
45. Bojsen-Moller M, Nielsen JL. CNS involvement in leukaemia. An autopsy study of 100 consecutive patients. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand Section A Pathol 1983; 91:209-16.
46. Schrappe M, Reiter A, Henze G, et al. Prevention of CNS recurrence in childhood ALL: results with reduced radiotherapy combined with CNS-directed chemotherapy in four consecutive ALL-BFM trials. Klin Padiatr 1998;210:192-9.
47. Schrappe M, Reiter A, Riehm H. Prophylaxis and treatment of neoplastic meningeosis in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Neurooncol 1998;38:159-65.
48. Filatov LB, Konstantinova TS, Shalaev VA. Prevention of neuroleukemia by intrathecal administration of cytosar and methotrexate in acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults. Ter Arkh 1999;71:38-40.
49. Rivera GK, Pinkel D, Simone JV, et al. Treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. 30 years' experience at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. N Engl J Med 1993;329: 1289-95.
50. Atkinson K, Kay HE, Lawler SD, et al. Meningeal leukemia after blastic transformation of chronic myeloid leukemia. Cancer 1975;35:529-33.
51. Wolk RW, Masse SR, Conklin R, et al. The incidence of central nervous system leukemia in adults with acute leukemia. Cancer 1974;33:863-9.
52. Truong LD, Kim HS, Estrada R. Meningeal myeloma. Am J Clin Pathol 1982;78:532-5.
53. Ayan I, Kebudi R, Bayindir C, et al. Microscopic local leptomeningeal invasion at diagnosis of medulloblastoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1997;39:461-6.
54. Geerts Y, Gabreels F, Lippens R, et al. Choroid plexus carcinoma: a report of two cases and review of the literature. Neuropediatrics 1996;27:143-8.
55. Armao DM, Stone J, Castillo M, et al. Diffuse leptomeningeal oligodendrogliomatosis: radiologic/pathologic correlation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000;21:1122-6.
56. Choucair AK, Levin VA, Gutin PH, et al. Development of multiple lesions during radiation therapy and chemotherapy in patients with gliomas. J Neurosurg 1986;65: 654-8.
57. Ng HK, Poon WS. Diffuse leptomeningeal gliomatosis with oligodendroglioma. Pathology 1999;31:59-63.
58. Shuangshoti S. Primary diffuse leptomeningeal glioblastoma multiforme of brainstem and spinal cord clinically mimicking meningitis: case report and review of literature. J Med Assoc Thai 1996;79:403-8.
59. Mishima K, Nakamura M, Nakamura H, et al. Leptomeningeal dissemination of cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1992;77:788-91.
60. Giordana MT, Cavalla P, Allegranza A, et al. Intracranial dissemination of pituitary adenoma. Case report and review of the literature. Ital J Neurol Sci 1994;15:195-200.
61. Horten BC, Rubinstein LJ. Primary cerebral neuroblastoma. A clinicopathological study of 35 cases. Brain 1976;99:735-56.
62. Kramer K, Kushner B, Heller G, et al. Neuroblastoma metastatic to the central nervous system. The Memorial Sloan-kettering Cancer Center experience and a literature review. Cancer 2001;91:1510-9.
63. Morikawa M, Tamaki N, Kokunai T, et al. Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma with leptomeningeal dissemination: case report. Surg Neurol 1997;48:49-51; discussion 51-2.
64. Tamura M, Zama A, Kurihara H, et al. Management of recurrent pilocytic astrocytoma with leptomeningeal dissemination in childhood. Childs Nerv Syst 1998;14:617-22.
65. Versari P, Talamonti G, D'Aliberti G, et al. Leptomeningeal dissemination of juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma: case report. Surg Neurol 1994;41:318-21.
66. Yamamoto T, Komori T, Shibata N, et al. Multifocal neurocytoma/gangliocytoma with extensive leptomeningeal dissemination in the brain and spinal cord. Am J Surg Pathol 1996;20:363-70.
67. Louboutin JP, Maugard-Louboutin C, Fumoleau P. Leptomeningeal infiltration in esthesioneuroblastoma: report of two cases with poor prognosis. Eur Neurol 1994;34:236-8.
68. Khan RB, Giri DD, Rosenblum MK, et al. Leptomeningeal metastasis from an intracranial epidermoid cyst. Neurology 2001;56:1419-20.
69. Grove A, Vyberg M. Primary leptomeningeal T-cell lymphoma: a case and a review of primary T-cell lymphoma of the central nervous system. Clin Neuropathol 1993;12:7-12.
70. Lachance DH, O'Neill BP, Macdonald DR, et al. Primary leptomeningeal lymphoma: report of 9 cases, diagnosis with immunocytochemical analysis, and review of the literature. Neurology 1991;41:95-100.
71. Plotkin SR, Batchelor TT. Advances in the therapy of primary central nervous system lymphoma. Clin Lymphoma 2001;1:263-75; discussion 276-7.
72. Balmaceda C. Leptomeningeal tumor in primary central nervous system lymphoma: recognition, significance, and implications. Ann Neurol 1995;38:202-9.
73. Hochberg FH, Miller DC. Primary central nervous system lymphoma. J Neurosurg 1988;68:835-53.
74. Letendre L, Banks PM, Reese DF, et al. Primary lymphoma of the central nervous system. Cancer 1982;49:939-43.
75. Marsh WL Jr, Stevenson DR, Long HJ III. Primary leptomeningeal presentation of T-cell lymphoma. Report of a patient and review of the literature. Cancer 1983;51:1125-31.
76. Miller DC, Hochberg FH, Harris NL, et al. Pathology with clinical correlations of primary central nervous system non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The Massachusetts General Hospital experience 1958-1989. Cancer 1994;74:1383-97.
77. Schaumburg HH, Plank CR, Adams RD. The reticulum cell sarcoma-microglioma group of brain tumours. A consideration of their clinical features and therapy. Brain 1972;95: 199-212.
78. Giordana MT, Bradac GB, Pagni CA, et al. Primary diffuse leptomeningeal gliomatosis with anaplastic features. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1995;132:154-9.
79. Ng HK, Poon WS. Primary leptomeningeal astrocytoma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1998; 88:586-9.
80. Park JS, van den Noort S, Kim RC, et al. Primary diffuse leptomeningeal gliomatosis with signs of increased intracranial pressure and progressive meningeal enhancement on MRI. J Neuroimaging 1996;6:250-4.
81. Verslegers I, Demaerel P, Van Calenbergh F, et al. Primary multifocal leptomeningeal gliomatosis. Pediatr Radiol 1998;28:580-2.
82. Chen R, Macdonald DR, Ramsay DA. Primary diffuse leptomeningeal oligodendroglioma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1995;83:724-8.
83. Rogers LR, Estes ML, Rosenbloom SA, et al. Primary leptomeningeal oligodendroglioma: case report. Neurosurgery 1995;36:166-8; discussion 169.
84. Wacker MR, Cogen PH, Etzell JE, et al. Diffuse leptomeningeal involvement by a ganglioglioma in a child. Case report. J Neurosurg 1992;77:302-6.
85. Davis PC, Wichman RD, Takei Y, et al. Primary cerebral neuroblastoma: CT and MR findings in 12 cases. AJR. Am J Roentgenol 1990;154:831-6.
86. Lee W, Chang KH, Choe G, et al. MR imaging features of clear-cell meningioma with diffuse leptomeningeal seeding. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000;21:130-2.
87. Allcutt D, Michowiz S, Weitzman S, et al. Primary leptomeningeal melanoma: an unusually aggressive tumor in childhood. Neurosurgery 1993;32:721-9; discussion 729.
88. Bamborschke S, Ebhardt G, Szelies-Stock B, et al. Review and case report: primary melanoblastosis of the leptomeninges. Clin Neuropathol 1985;4:47-55.
89. Brat DJ, Giannini C, Scheithauer BW, et al. Primary melanocytic neoplasms of the central nervous systems. Am J Surg Pathol 1999;23:745-54.
90. Craver RD, Golladay SE, Warrier RP, et al. Neurocutaneous melanosis with Dandy-Walker malformation complicated by primary spinal leptomeningeal melanoma. J Child Neurol 1996;11:410-4.
91. Budka H, Pilz P, Guseo A. Primary leptomeningeal sarcomatosis. Clinicopathological report of six cases. J Neurol 1975;211:77-93.
92. Buttner A, Pfluger T, Weis S. Primary meningeal sarcomas in two children. J Neurooncol 2001;52:181-8.
93. Takeshima Y, Amatya VJ, Nakayori F, et al. Meningioangiomatosis occurring in a young male without neurofibromatosis: with special reference to its histogenesis and loss of heterozygosity in the NF2 gene region. Am J Surg Pathol 2002;26:125-9.
94. Wiebe S, Munoz DG, Smith S, et al. Meningioangiomatosis. A comprehensive analysis of clinical and laboratory features. Brain 1999;122:709-26.
95. Khan WA, Attal H, Vernick J, et al. Cytodiagnosis of a meningeal fibrosarcoma metastatic to the thyroid gland. Semin Diagn Pathol 2001;18:104-9.
96. Uchida K, Morozumi M, Yamaguchi R, et al. Diffuse leptomeningeal malignant histiocytosis in the brain and spinal cord of a Tibetan Terrier. Vet Pathol 2001;38:219-22.
97. Mooney JE, Papasozomenos SC. Leptomeningeal fibroma. Clin Neuropathol 1996; 15:92-5.
98. De Blay V, Misson N, Dardenne G, et al. Leptomeningeal myelomatosis mimicking a subdural haematoma. Neuroradiology 2000;42:735-7.
99. Amirjamshidi A, Abbassioun K, Sadeghi Tary A. Growing traumatic leptomeningeal cyst of the roof of the orbit presenting with unilateral exophthalmos. Surg Neurol 2000; 54:178-81; discussion 181-2.
100. Britz GW, Kim DK, Mayberg MR. Traumatic leptomeningeal cyst in an adult: a case report and review of the literature. Surg Neurol 1998;50:465-9.
101. Iida K, Hirano S, Takashima S, et al. Developmental study of leptomeningeal glioneuronal heterotopia. Pediatr Neurol 1994;10:295-8.
102. Kato M, Takashima S, Houdou S, et al. Cerebellar leptomeningeal astroglial heterotopia in neurofibromatosis type 1. Clin Neuropathol 1995;14:175-8.
103. Robertson PL, Muraszko KM, Blaivas M, et al. Leptomeningeal fibrosis and the delayed diagnosis of a central nervous system neoplasm (primitive neuroectodermal tumor). Pediatr Neurol 1997;16:74-8.
104. Alwatban J, Tampieri D, Salazar A, et al. MRI of leptomeningeal melanocytosis in a patient with neurofibromatosis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1997;21:38-40.
105. Price RA, Johnson WW. The central nervous system in childhood leukemia. I. The arachnoid. Cancer 1973;31:520-33.
106. Boyle R, Thomas M, Adams JH. Diffuse involvement of the leptomeninges by tumour - a clinical and pathological study of 63 cases. Postgrad Med J 1980;56:149-58.
107. Kokkoris CP. Leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. How does cancer reach the pia-arachnoid? Cancer 1983;51:154-60.
108. Hayat G, Ehsan T, Selhorst JB, et al. Magnetic resonance evidence of perineural metastasis. J Neuroimaging 1995;5:122-5.
109. Redman BG, Tapazoglou E, Al-Sarraf M. Meningeal carcinomatosis in head and neck cancer. Report of six cases and review of the literature. Cancer 1986;58:2656-61.
110. Koch D. Spinal metastases of cerebral glioma. Case report. Neurosurg Rev 1996;19: 201-3.
111. Norris LK, Grossman SA, Olivi A. Neoplastic meningitis following surgical resection of isolated cerebellar metastasis: a potentially preventable complication. J Neurooncol 1997; 32:215-23.
112. van der Ree TC, Dippel DW, Avezaat CJ, et al. Leptomeningeal metastasis after surgical resection of brain metastases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;66:225-7.
113. Klein P, Haley EC, Wooten GF, et al. Focal cerebral infarctions associated with perivascular tumor infiltrates in carcinomatous leptomeningeal metastases. Arch Neurol 1989;46:1149-52.
114. Jeyapalan SA, Batchelor TT. Diagnostic evaluation of neurologic metastases. Cancer Invest 2000;18:381-94.
115. Chen HS, Shen MC, Tien HF, et al. Leptomeningeal seeding with acute hydrocephalus - unusual central nervous system presentation during chemotherapy in Ki-1-positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Acta Haematol 1996;95:135-9.
116. Siegal T, Mildworf B, Stein D, et al. Leptomeningeal metastases: reduction in regional cerebral blood flow and cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 1985;17:100-2.
117. Hernandez-Ramos FJ, Serrano-Castro PJ. Deafness from leptomeningeal metastasis. Neurologia 1996;11:344.
118. Laurencet FM, Anchisi S, Tullen E, et al. Mental neuropathy: report of five cases and review of the literature. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2000;34:71-9.
119. Galassi G, Zonari P, Artusi T, et al. Leptomeningeal carcinomatosis presenting as progressive multineuritis: clinical, pathologic, and MRI study. Clin Neuropathol 1996;15: 159-62.
120. Kaplan JG, Portenoy RK, Pack DR, et al. Polyradiculopathy in leptomeningeal metastasis: the role of EMG and late response studies. J Neurooncol 1990;9: 219-24.
121. Chua JJ, Tan PK, Seow WT. Leptomeningeal metastasis with urological presentation. Singapore Med J 1997;38:266-7.
122. Kobayashi M, Hara K, Nakatsukasa M, et al. Primary spinal leptomeningeal gliomatosis presenting visual disturbance as the initial symptom: case report. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1996;138:480-1.
123. O'Neill BP, Dinapoli RP, Okazaki H. Cerebral infarction as a result of tumor emboli. Cancer 1987;60:90-5.
124. Herman C, Kupsky WJ, Rogers L, et al. Leptomeningeal dissemination of malignant glioma simulating cerebral vasculitis. Case report with angiographic and pathological studies. Stroke 1995;26:2366-70.
125. Broderick JP, Cascino TL. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in a patient with leptomeningeal cancer. Mayo Clin Proc 1987;62:835-7.
126. Marcus FS, Dandolos EM, Friedman MA. Meningeal carcinomatosis in breast cancer presenting as central hypoventilation: a case report with a brief review of the literature. Cancer 1981;47:982-4.
127. Ashworth B. Cerebral histiocytic lymphoma presenting with loss of weight. Neurology 1982;32:894-6.
128. Elliott P, Ku NN, Werner MH. Neoplastic meningitis with normal neurological findings. Magnetic resonance imaging results. J Neuroimaging 1995;5:233-6.
129. Freilich RJ, Krol G, DeAngelis LM. Neuroimaging and cerebrospinal fluid cytology in the diagnosis of leptomeningeal metastasis. Ann Neurol 1995;38:51-7.
130. NCCN. Central nervous system cancers guidelines, "The complete library of NCCN oncology practice guidelines" [CD-ROM]. Rockledge, PA. 2001. To view most recent version of the guideline, go online to www.nccn.org.
131. Lansberg MG, O'Brien MW, Norbash AM, et al. MRI abnormalities associated with partial status epilepticus. Neurology 1999;52:1021-7.
132. Chamberlain MC, Sandy AD, Press GA. Leptomeningeal metastasis: a comparison of gadolinium-enhanced MR and contrast-enhanced CT of the brain. Neurology 1990; 40:435-8.
133. River Y, Schwartz A, Gomori JM, et al. Clinical significance of diffuse dural enhancement detected by magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosurg 1996;85:777-83.
134. Collie DA, Brush JP, Lammie GA, et al. Imaging features of leptomeningeal metastases. Clin Radiol 1999;54:765-71.
135. Kioumehr F, Dadsetan MR, Feldman N, et al. Postcontrast MRI of cranial meninges: leptomeningitis versus pachymeningitis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19:713-20.
136. Straathof CS, de Bruin HG, Dippel DW, et al. The diagnostic accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging and cerebrospinal fluid cytology in leptomeningeal metastasis. J Neurol 1999;246:810-4.
137. Singer MB, Atlas SW, Drayer BP. Subarachnoid space disease: diagnosis with fluid-attenuated inversion-recovery MR imaging and comparison with gadolinium-enhanced spin-echo MR imaging-blinded reader study. Radiology 1998;208:417-22.
138. Korkmaz M, Kim EE, Wong FC, et al. In-III DTPA ommayagrams in leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Clin Nucl Med 1995;20:610-2.
139. Chamberlain MC. Comparative spine imaging in leptomeningeal metastases. J Neurooncol 1995;23:233-8.
140. Chamberlain MC. Radioisotope CSF flow studies in leptomeningeal metastases. J Neurooncol 1998;38:135-40.
141. Chamberlain MC. Spinal 111Indium-DTPA CSF flow studies in leptomeningeal metastasis. J Neurooncol 1995;25:135-41.
142. Chamberlain MC, Kormanik P, Jaeckle KA, et al. 111Indium-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid CSF flow studies predict distribution of intrathecally administered chemotherapy and outcome in patients with leptomeningeal metastases. Neurology 1999;52:216-7.
143. Chamberlain MC, Kormanik PA. Prognostic significance of 111indium-DTPA CSF flow studies in leptomeningeal metastases. Neurology 1996;46:1674-7.
144. Mason WP, Yeh SD, DeAngelis LM. 111Indium-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid cerebrospinal fluid flow studies predict distribution of intrathecally administered chemotherapy and outcome in patients with leptomeningeal metastases. Neurology 1998; 50:438-44.
145. Conrad KA, Gross JL, Trojanowski JQ. Leptomeningeal carcinomatosis presenting as eosinophilic meningitis. Acta Cytol 1986;30:29-31.
146. Kranz BR. Detection of rare malignant cells and their apoptotic fragments in cerebrospinal fluid. Lancet 2000;356:1242-4.
147. Rogers LR, Duchesneau PM, Nunez C, et al. Comparison of cisternal and lumbar CSF examination in leptomeningeal metastasis. Neurology 1992;42:1239-41.
148. Chamberlain MC. New approaches to and current treatment of leptomeningeal metastases. Curr Opin Neurol 1994;7:492-500.
149. Kolmel HW. Cytology of neoplastic meningosis. J Neurooncol 1998;38:121-5.
150. Moseley RP, Davies AG, Bourne SP, et al. Neoplastic meningitis in malignant melanoma: diagnosis with monoclonal antibodies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52:881-6.
151. Cibas ES, Malkin MG, Posner JB, et al. Detection of DNA abnormalities by flow cytometry in cells from cerebrospinal fluid. Am J Clin Pathol 1987;88:570-7.
152. Chamberlain MC. Cytologically negative carcinomatous meningitis: usefulness of CSF biochemical markers. Neurology 1998;50:1173-5.
153. Garicochea B, Cliquet MG, Melo N, et al. Leptomeningeal involvement in chronic lymphocytic leukemia identified by polymerase chain reaction in stored slides: a case report. Mod Pathol 1997;10:500-3.
154. Oschmann P, Kaps M, Volker J, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis: CSF cytology, immunocytochemistry and biochemical tumor markers. Acta Neurol Scand 1994;89:395-9.
155. Fleisher M, Wasserstrom WR, Schold SC, et al. Lactic dehydrogenase isoenzymes in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with systemic cancer. Cancer 1981;47:2654-9.
156. Twijnstra A, Nooyen WJ, van Zanten AP, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid carcinoembryonic antigen in patients with metastatic and nonmetastatic neurological diseases. Arch Neurol 1986;43:269-72.
157. Shuttleworth E, Allen N. CSF beta-glucuronidase assay in the diagnosis of neoplastic meningitis. Arch Neurol 1980;37:684-7.
158. Tallman RD, Kimbrough SM, O'Brien JF, et al. Assay for beta-glucuronidase in cerebrospinal fluid: usefulness for the detection of neoplastic meningitis. Mayo Clin Proc 1985;60:293-8.
159. Twijnstra A, van Zanten AP, Nooyen WJ, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of single and combined tumour markers in the diagnosis of leptomeningeal metastasis from breast cancer. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:1246-50.
160. Twijnstra A, Ongerboer de Visser BW, van Zanten AP, et al. Serial lumbar and ventricular cerebrospinal fluid biochemical marker measurements in patients with leptomeningeal metastases from solid and hematological tumors. J Neurooncol 1989; 7:57-63.
161. Twijnstra A, van Zanten AP, Hart AA, et al. Serial lumbar and ventricle cerebrospinal fluid lactate dehydrogenase activities in patients with leptomeningeal metastases from solid and haematological tumours. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987;50:313-20.
162. Coakham HB, Kemshead JT. The present role of monoclonal antibodies in the diagnosis and therapy of brain tumours. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1987;99:372-8.
163. Nakamura S, Nagano I, Yoshioka M, et al. Immunocytochemical detection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in infiltrating tumor cells in the cerebrospinal fluid from five patients with leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Acta Neurol Scand 1995;91:137-40.
164. Thomas JE, Falls E, Velasco ME, et al. Diagnostic value of immunocytochemistry in leptomeningeal tumor dissemination. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2000;124:759-61.
165. Gleissner B, Siehl J, Korfel A, et al. CSF evaluation in primary CNS lymphoma patients by PCR of the CDR III IgH genes. Neurology 2002;58:390-6.
166. Rhodes CH, Glantz MJ, Glantz L, et al. A comparison of polymerase chain reaction examination of cerebrospinal fluid and conventional cytology in the diagnosis of lymphomatous meningitis. Cancer 1996;77:543-8.
167. Storch-Hagenlocher B, Haas J, Vogt-Schaden ME, et al. Molecular analysis of the CDR3 encoding region of the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus in cerebrospinal fluid cells as a diagnostic tool in lymphomatous meningitis. Ann Neurol 2000;47:211-7.
168. Swinkels DW, de Kok JB, Hanselaar A, et al. Early detection of leptomeningeal metastasis by PCR examination of tumor-derived K-ras DNA in cerebrospinal fluid. Clin Chem 2000;46:132-3.
169. Fujita J, Ueda Y, Bandoh S, et al. A case of leptomeningeal metastasis from lung adenocarcinoma diagnosed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction for carcinoembryonic antigen. Lung Cancer 1998;22:153-6.
170. DeAngelis LM, Posner JB. Telomerase activity in brain and leptomeningeal metastases. J Neurol Sci 1998;161:114-5.
171. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Evans LC, Bitter MA, et al. Part II. Telomerase expression in cerebrospinal fluid specimens as an adjunct to cytologic diagnosis. J Neurol Sci 1998; 161:124-34.
172. PoSpiech L, Orendorz-Fraczkowska K, Gawron W. A rare case of metastatic meningitis with unknown primary focus and atypical symptoms. Otolaryngol Pol 2000;54:115-7.
173. Ortega JJ, Ribera JM, Oriol A, et al. Early and delayed consolidation chemotherapy significantly improves the outcome of children with intermediate risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Final results of the prospective randomized Pethema A11-89 Trial. Haematologica 2001;86:586-95.
174. Balducci L, Little DD, Khansur T, et al. Carcinomatous meningitis in small cell lung cancer. Am J Med Sci 1984;287:31-3.
175. Boogerd W, Hart AA, van der Sande JJ, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis in breast cancer. Prognostic factors and influence of treatment. Cancer 1991;67:1685-95.
176. Grossman SA, Finkelstein DM, Ruckdeschel JC, et al. Randomized prospective comparison of intraventricular methotrexate and thiotepa in patients with previously untreated neoplastic meningitis. Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 1993;11:561-9.
177. Jayson GC, Howell A, Harris M, et al. Carcinomatous meningitis in patients with breast cancer. An aggressive disease variant. Cancer 1994;74:3135-41.
178. Pfeffer MR, Wygoda M, Siegal T. Leptomeningeal metastases - treatment results in 98 consecutive patients. Isr J Med Sci 1988;24:611-8.
179. Sause WT, Crowley J, Eyre HJ, et al. Whole brain irradiation and intrathecal methotrexate in the treatment of solid tumor leptomeningeal metastases - a Southwest Oncology Group study. J Neurooncol 1988;6:107-12.
180. Sorensen SC, Eagan RT, Scott M. Meningeal carcinomatosis in patients with primary breast or lung cancer. Mayo Clin Proc 1984;59:91-4.
181. Hermann B, Hultenschmidt B, Sautter-Bihl ML. Radiotherapy of the neuroaxis for palliative treatment of leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Strahlenther Onkol 2001;177: 195-9.
182. Koehler PJ. Use of corticosteroids in neuro-oncology. Anticancer Drugs 1995;6:19-33.
183. Pollack IF, Hurtt M, Pang D, et al. Dissemination of low grade intracranial astrocytomas in children. Cancer 1994;73:2869-78.
184. DeAngelis LM, Delattre JY, Posner JB. Radiation-induced dementia in patients cured of brain metastases. Neurology 1989;39:789-96.
185. Foley KM, Woodruff JM, Ellis FT, et al. Radiation-induced malignant and atypical peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Ann Neurol 1980;7:311-8.
186. Linstadt D, Wara WM, Edwards MS, et al. Radiotherapy of primary intracranial germinomas: the case against routine craniospinal irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1988;15:291-7.
187. Thiessen B, DeAngelis LM. Hydrocephalus in radiation leukoencephalopathy: results of ventriculoperitoneal shunting. Arch Neurol 1998;55:705-10.
188. Young DF, Posner JB, Chu F, et al. Rapid-course radiation therapy of cerebral metastases: results and complications. Cancer 1974;34:1069-76.
189. Chamberlain MC, Corey-Bloom J. Leptomeningeal metastases: 111indium-DTPA CSF flow studies. Neurology 1991;41:1765-9.
190. Poplack DG, Bleyer WA, Horowitz ME. Pharmacology of antineoplastic agents in cerebrospinal fluid. In: Wood JH, editor. Neurobiology of cerebrospinal fluid. New York: Plenum Press; 1980. p. 561-78.
191. Siegal T, Lossos A, Pfeffer MR. Leptomeningeal metastases: analysis of 31 patients with sustained off-therapy response following combined-modality therapy. Neurology 1994; 44:1463-9.
192. Ongerboer de Visser BW, Somers R, Nooyen WH, et al. Intraventricular methotrexate therapy of leptomeningeal metastasis from breast carcinoma. Neurology 1983;33:1565-72.
193. Fizazi K, Asselain B, Vincent-Salomon A, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis in patients with breast carcinoma. Clinical features, prognostic factors, and results of a high-dose intrathecal methotrexate regimen. Cancer 1996;77:1315-23.
194. Bokstein F, Lossos A, Siegal T. Leptomeningeal metastases from solid tumors: a comparison of two prospective series treated with and without intra-cerebrospinal fluid chemotherapy. Cancer 1998;82:1756-63.
195. Burch PA, Grossman SA, Reinhard CS. Spinal cord penetration of intrathecally administered cytarabine and methotrexate: a quantitative autoradiographic study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1988;80:1211-6.
196. Chamberlain MC, Kormanik PR. Carcinomatous meningitis secondary to breast cancer: predictors of response to combined modality therapy. J Neurooncol 1997;35:55-64.
197. Glantz MJ, Jaeckle KA, Chamberlain MC, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing intrathecal sustained-release cytarabine (DepoCyt) to intrathecal methotrexate in patients with neoplastic meningitis from solid tumors. Clin Cancer Res 1999;5:3394-402.
198. Glantz MJ, Cole BF, Recht L, et al. High-dose intravenous methotrexate for patients with nonleukemic leptomeningeal cancer: is intrathecal chemotherapy necessary? J Clin Oncol 1998;16:1561-7.
199. Siegal T. Leptomeningeal metastases: rationale for systemic chemotherapy or what is the role of intra-CSF-chemotherapy?. J Neurooncol 1998;38:151-7.
200. Bleyer WA, Coccia PF, Sather HN, et al. Reduction in central nervous system leukemia with a pharmacokinetically derived intrathecal methotrexate dosage regimen. J Clin Oncol 1983;1:317-25.
201. Mehta BM, Glass JP, Shapiro WR. Serum and cerebrospinal fluid distribution of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate after intravenous calcium leucovorin and intra-Ommaya methotrexate administration in patients with meningeal carcinomatosis. Cancer Res 1983; 43:435-8.
202. Liaw CC, Ng KT, Huang JS, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis from solid tumors: clinical analysis of 42 cases. J Formos Med Assoc 1992;91:299-303.
203. Reni M, Ferreri AJ, Guha-Thakurta N, et al. Clinical relevance of consolidation radiotherapy and other main therapeutic issues in primary central nervous system lymphomas treated with upfront high-dose methotrexate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001;51:419-25.
204. Geiser CF, Bishop Y, Jaffe N, et al. Adverse effects of intrathecal methotrexate in children with acute leukemia in remission. Blood 1975;45:189-95.
205. Gagliano RG, Costanzi JJ. Paraplegia following intrathecal methotrexate: report of a case and review of the literature. Cancer 1976;37:1663-8.
206. Rubinstein LJ, Herman MM, Long TF, et al. Disseminated necrotizing leukoencephalopathy: a complication of treated central nervous system leukemia and lymphoma. Cancer 1975;35:291-305.
207. Shapiro WR, Chernik NL, Posner JB. Necrotizing encephalopathy following intraventricular instillation of methotrexate. Arch Neurol 1973;28:96-102.
208. Shapiro WR, Young DF, Mehta BM. Methotrexate: distribution in cerebrospinal fluid after intravenous, ventricular and lumbar injections. N Engl J Med 1975;293: 161-6.
209. Morra E, Lazzarino M, Brusamolino E, et al. The role of systemic high-dose cytarabine in the treatment of central nervous system leukemia. Clinical results in 46 patients. Cancer 1993;72:439-45.
210. Chamberlain MC, Khatibi S, Kim JC, et al. Treatment of leptomeningeal metastasis with intraventricular administration of depot cytarabine (DTC 101). A phase I study. Arch Neurol 1993;50:261-4.
211. Kim S, Chatelut E, Kim JC, et al. Extended CSF cytarabine exposure following intrathecal administration of DTC 101. J Clin Oncol 1993;11:2186-93.
212. Glantz MJ, LaFollette S, Jaeckle KA, et al. Randomized trial of a slow-release versus a standard formulation of cytarabine for the intrathecal treatment of lymphomatous meningitis. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:3110-6.
213. Boogerd W, Moffie D, Smets LA. Early blindness and coma during intrathecal chemotherapy for meningeal carcinomatosis. Cancer 1990;65:452-7.
214. Saleh MN, Christian ES, Diamond BR. Intrathecal cytosine arabinoside-induced acute, rapidly reversible paralysis. Am J Med 1989;86:729-30.
215. Strong JM, Collins JM, Lester C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of intraventricular and intravenous N,N′,N″-triethylenethiophosphoramide (thiotepa) in rhesus monkeys and humans. Cancer Res 1986;46:6101-4.
216. Witham TF, Fukui MB, Meltzer CC, et al. Survival of patients with high grade glioma treated with intrathecal thiotriethylenephosphoramide for ependymal or leptomeningeal gliomatosis. Cancer 1999;86:1347-53.
217. Trump DL, Grossman SA, Thompson G, et al. Treatment of neoplastic meningitis with intraventricular thiotepa and methotrexate. Cancer Treat Rep 1982;66:1549-51.
218. Nakagawa H, Yamada M, Maeda N, et al. Clinical trial of intrathecal administration of 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine for treatment of meningeal dissemination of malignant tumors. J Neurooncol 1999;45:175-83.
219. Blaney SM, Poplack DG. New cytotoxic drugs for intrathecal administration. J Neurooncol 1998;38:219-23.
220. Giannone L, Greco FA, Hainsworth JD. Combination intraventricular chemotherapy for meningeal neoplasia. J Clin Oncol 1986;4:68-73.
221. Stewart DJ, Maroun JA, Hugenholtz H, et al. Combined intraommaya methotrexate, cytosine arabinoside, hydrocortisone and thio-TEPA for meningeal involvement by malignancies. J Neurooncol 1987;5:315-22.
222. Hitchins RN, Bell DR, Woods RL, et al. A prospective randomized trial of single-agent versus combination chemotherapy in meningeal carcinomatosis. J Clin Oncol 1987;5: 1655-62.
223. Bigner DD, Brown M, Coleman RE, et al. Phase I studies of treatment of malignant gliomas and neoplastic meningitis with 131I-radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies antitenascin 81C6 and anti-chondroitin proteoglycan sulfate Mel-14 F (ab′)2 - a preliminary report. J Neurooncol 1995;24:109-22.
224. Coakham HB, Richardson RB, Davies AG, et al. Antibody-guided radiation therapy via the CSF for malignant meningitis. Lancet 1986;2:860-1.
225. Moseley RP, Benjamin JC, Ashpole RD, et al. Carcinomatous meningitis: antibody-guided therapy with I-131 HMFG1. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991;54:260-5.
226. Coakham HB, Kemshead JT. Treatment of neoplastic meningitis by targeted radiation using (131)I-radiolabelled monoclonal antibodies. Results of responses and long term follow-up in 40 patients. J Neurooncol 1998;38:225-32.
227. List J, Moser RP, Steuer M, et al. Cytokine responses to intraventricular injection of interleukin 2 into patients with leptomeningeal carcinomatosis: rapid induction of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, gamma-interferon, and soluble interleukin 2 receptor (Mr 55,000 protein). Cancer Res 1992;52:1123-8.
228. Samlowski WE, Park KJ, Galinsky RE, et al. Intrathecal administration of interleukin-2 for meningeal carcinomatosis due to malignant melanoma: sequential evaluation of intracranial pressure, cerebrospinal fluid cytology, and cytokine induction. J Immunother 1993;13:49-54.
229. Fathallah-Shaykh HM, Zimmerman C, Morgan H, et al. Response of primary leptomeningeal melanoma to intrathecal recombinant interleukin-2. A case report. Cancer 1996;77:1544-50.
230. Herrlinger U, Buchholz R, Jachimczak P, et al. Intrathecal treatment of C6 glioma leptomeningeal metastasis in Wistar rats with interleukin-2. J Neurooncol 1996;27: 193-203.
231. Herrlinger U, Schmidberger H, Buchholz R, et al. Intrathecal therapy of leptomeningeal CEM T-cell lymphoma in nude rats with anti-CD7 ricin toxin A chain immunotoxin. J Neurooncol 1998;40:1-9.
232. Shimizu K, Okamoto Y, Miyao Y, et al. Adoptive immunotherapy of human meningeal gliomatosis and carcinomatosis with LAK cells and recombinant interleukin-2. J Neurosurg 1987;66:519-21.
233. Hall WA. Targeted toxin therapy for malignant astrocytoma. Neurosurgery 2000;46: 544-51; discussion 552.
234. Laske DW, Muraszko KM, Oldfield EH, et al. Intraventricular immunotoxin therapy for leptomeningeal neoplasia. Neurosurgery 1997;41:1039-49; discussion 1049-51.
235. Brown MT, Coleman RE, Friedman AH, et al. Intrathecal 131I-labeled antitenascin monoclonal antibody 81C6 treatment of patients with leptomeningeal neoplasms or primary brain tumor resection cavities with subarachnoid communication: phase I trial results. Clin Cancer Res 1996;2:963-72.
236. Cokgor I, Akabani G, Friedman HS, et al. Long term response in a patient with neoplastic meningitis secondary to melanoma treated with (131)I-radiolabeled antichondroitin proteoglycan sulfate Mel-14 F(ab′) (2): a case study. Cancer 2001;91: 1809-13.
237. Archer GE, Sampson JH, Lorimer IA, et al. Regional treatment of epidermal growth factor receptor vIII-expressing neoplastic meningitis with a single-chain immunotoxin, MR-1. Clin Cancer Res 1999;5:2646-52.
238. Bigner DD, Archer GE, McLendon RE, et al. Efficacy of compartmental administration of immunotoxin LMB-1 (B3-LysPE38) in a rat model of carcinomatous meningitis. Clin Cancer Res 1995;1:1545-55.
239. Oldfield EH, Ram Z, Chiang Y, et al. Intrathecal gene therapy for the treatment of leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. GTI 0108. A phase I/II study. Hum Gene Ther 1995;6: 55-85.
240. Rosenfeld MR, Bergman I, Schramm L, et al. Adeno-associated viral vector gene transfer into leptomeningeal xenografts. J Neurooncol 1997;34:139-44.
241. Viola JJ, Ram Z, Walbridge S, et al. Adenovirally mediated gene transfer into experimental solid brain tumors and leptomeningeal cancer cells. J Neurosurg 1995;82:70-6.
242. Neuwelt EA, Specht HD, Barnett PA, et al. Increased delivery of tumor-specific monoclonal antibodies to brain after osmotic blood-brain barrier modification in patients with melanoma metastatic to the central nervous system. Neurosurgery 1987;20:885-95.
243. Bergman I, Ahdab-Barmada M, Kemp SS, et al. A rat model of leptomeningeal human neoplastic xenografts. J Neurooncol 1997;34:221-31.
244. Sagar SM, Price KJ. An experimental model of leptomeningeal metastases employing rat mammary carcinoma cells. J Neurooncol 1995;23:15-21.
245. Schabet M, Herrlinger U. Animal models of leptomeningeal metastasis. J Neurooncol 1998;38:199-205.
246. Balmaceda C, Gaynor JJ, Sun M, et al. Leptomeningeal tumor in primary central nervous system lymphoma: recognition, significance, and implications. Ann Neurol 1995;38:202-9.
247. Lampl Y, Paniri Y, Eshel Y, et al. Alkaline phosphatase level in CSF in various brain tumors and pulmonary carcinomatous meningitis. J Neurooncol 1990;9: 35-40.
248. Weller M, Stevens A, Sommer N, et al. Tumor cell dissemination triggers an intrathecal immune response in neoplastic meningitis. Cancer 1992;69:1475-80.
249. Pedersen AG, Bach FW, Nissen M, et al. Creatine kinase BB and beta-2-microglobulin as markers of CNS metastases in patients with small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 1985; 3:1364-72.
250. Klee GG, Tallman RD, Goellner JR, et al. Elevation of carcinoembryonic antigen in cerebrospinal fluid among patients with meningeal carcinomatosis. Mayo Clin Proc 1986;61:9-13.
251. Schold SC, Wasserstrom WR, Fleisher M, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid biochemical markers of central nervous system metastases. Ann Neurol 1980;8:597-604.
252. Ohta H, Koyama R, Nagai T, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis from an ovarian primary with complete response to adjuvant chemotherapy after cranial irradiation. Int J Clin Oncol 2001;6:157-62.
253. Machado AB, Machado AA, Barbuto JA, et al. Central nervous system metastases from breast carcinoma. A clinical and laboratorial study in 47 patients. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 1998;56:188-92.
254. Sato Y, Ohta Y, Ohtsuka T, et al. A case of leptomeningeal carcinomatosis: demonstration of CA19-9 and CEA positive malignant cells in the CSF and particular elevation of CA19-9 level in the CSF. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 1991;31:175-8.
255. Royds JA, Collin RC, Timperley WR, et al. Childhood leukemia: cerebrospinal fluid enolase isoenzymes in central nervous system infiltration. Leukemia 1987;1:820-1.
256. Koskiniemi M. Malignancy markers in the cerebrospinal fluid. Eur J Pediatr 1988; 148:3-8.
257. Bae JY, Choi BO, SunWoo IN, et al. Diffuse cerebrospinal gliomatosis with extensive leptomeningeal spread. Yonsei Med J 2000;41:517-21.
258. Newton HB, Fleisher M, Schwartz MK, et al. Glucosephosphate isomerase as a CSF marker for leptomeningeal metastasis. Neurology 1991;41:395-8.
259. Nagourney RA, Hedaya R, Linnoila M, et al. Carcinoid carcinomatous meningitis. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:779-82.
260. Moseley RP, Oge K, Shafqat S, et al. HMFG1 antigen: a new marker for carcinomatous meningitis. Int J Cancer 1989;44:440-4.
261. Schipper HI, Bardosi A, Jacobi C, et al. Meningeal carcinomatosis: origin of local IgG production in the CSF. Neurology 1988;38:413-6.
262. Siegal T, Ovadia H, Yatsiv I, et al. CSF myelin basic protein levels in leptomeningeal metastases. Relationship to disease activity. J Neurol Sci 1987;78:165-73.
263. Friedberg MH, Glantz MJ, Klempner MS, et al. Specific matrix metalloproteinase profiles in the cerebrospinal fluid correlated with the presence of malignant astrocytomas, brain metastases, and carcinomatous meningitis. Cancer 1998;82:923-30.
264. Tosaka M, Tamura M, Oriuchi N, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid immunocytochemical analysis and neuroimaging in the diagnosis of primary leptomeningeal melanoma. Case report. J Neurosurg 2001;94:528-32.
265. Mencel PJ, DeAngelis LM, Motzer RJ. Hormonal ablation as effective therapy for carcinomatous meningitis from prostatic carcinoma. Cancer 1994;73:1892-4.
266. Bach F, Soletormos G, Dombernowsky P. Tissue polypeptide antigen activity in cerebrospinal fluid: a marker of central nervous system metastases of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83:779-84.
267. Stockhammer G, Poewe W, Burgstaller S, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor in CSF: a biological marker for carcinomatous meningitis. Neurology 2000;54:1670-6.
268. George TI, Manley G, Koehler JE, et al. Detection of Bartonella henselae by polymerase chain reaction in brain tissue of an immunocompromised patient with multiple enhancing lesions. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 1998;89:640-4.
269. Sato Y, Ohta Y, Honda Y, et al. Diagnostic value of atypical lymphocytes in cerebrospinal fluid from adults with enteroviral meningitis. J Neurol 1998;245:598-602.
270. Gulati P, Sun NC, Herman BK, et al. Isolated leptomeningeal Castleman's disease with viral particles in the follicular dendritic cells. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1998;122: 1026-9.
271. LeBlang SD, Falcone S, Quencer RM. Enhancing meningeal blood vessels masquerading as leptomeningeal spread of tumor in obstructive hydrocephalus. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:1742-4.
272. Harrison PE Jr. Granulomatous angitis of the central nervous system. Case report and review. J Neurol Sci 1976;29:335-41.
273. Asai A, Matsutani M, Kohno T, et al. Leptomeningeal and orbital benign lymphophagocytic histiocytosis. Case report. J Neurosurg 1988;69:610-2.
274. Demaerel P, Wilms G, Van Lierde S, et al. Lyme disease in childhood presenting as primary leptomeningeal enhancement without parenchymal findings on MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994;15:302-4.
275. Demaerel P, Robberecht W, Casteels I, et al. Focal leptomeningeal MR enhancement along the chiasm as a presenting sign of multiple sclerosis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19:297-8.
276. Bandres JC, White AC Jr, Samo T, et al. Extraparenchymal neurocysticercosis: report of five cases and review of management. Clin Infect Dis 1992;15:799-811.
277. Morimoto T, Sasaki T, Basugi N, et al. Tuberculoma and tuberculous meningitis mimicking metastatic brain tumor and meningeal carcinomatosis - case report. No Shinkei Geka 1987;15:1345-50.
278. Arnder L, Castillo M, Heinz ER, et al. Unusual pattern of enhancement in cryptococcal meningitis: in vivo findings with postmortem correlation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996; 20:1023-6.
279. Chad DA, Recht LD. Neuromuscular complications of systemic cancer. Neurol Clin 1991;9:901-18.
280. Verschuuren JJ, Perquin M, ten Velde G, et al. Anti-Hu antibody titre and brain metastases before and after treatment for small cell lung cancer. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:353-7.
281. Pannullo SC, Reich JB, Krol G, et al. MRI changes in intracranial hypotension. Neurology 1993;43:919-26.
282. Kothare SV, Chu CC, VanLandingham K, et al. Migratory leptomeningeal inflammation with relapsing polychondritis. Neurology 1998;51:614-7.
283. Jackson CG, Chess RL, Ward JR. A case of rheumatoid nodule formation within the central nervous system and review of the literature. J Rheumatol 1984;11:237-40.
284. Kamio N, Kuramochi S, Wang RJ, et al. Rheumatoid arthritis complicated by pachy- and leptomeningeal rheumatoid nodule-like granulomas and systemic vasculitis. Pathol Int 1996;46:526-30.
285. Abrey LE, Rosenblum MK, DeAngelis LM. Sarcoidosis of the cauda equina mimicking leptomeningeal malignancy. J Neurooncol 1998;39:261-5.
286. Castellano-Sanchez AA. Extensive leptomeningeal and intraparenchymatous spinal cord neurosarcoidosis. South Med J 2000;93:815-7.
287. Christoforidis GA, Spickler EM, Recio MV, et al. MR of CNS sarcoidosis: correlation of imaging features to clinical symptoms and response to treatment. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:655-69.
288. Ranoux D, Devaux B, Lamy C, et al. Meningeal sarcoidosis, pseudo-meningioma, and pachymeningitis of the convexity. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992;55:300-3.
289. Urbach H, Kristof R, Zentner J, et al. Sarcoidosis presenting as an intra- or extra-axial cranial mass: report of two cases. Neuroradiology 1997;39:516-9.
290. Negishi C, Sze G. Vasculitis presenting as primary leptomeningeal enhancement with minimal parenchymal findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1993;14:26-8.
291. Jinnah HA, Dixon A, Brat DJ, et al. Chronic meningitis with cranial neuropathies in Wegener's granulomatosis. Case report and review of the literature. Arthritis Rheum 1997;40:573-7.
292. Nishino H, Rubino FA, Parisi JE. The spectrum of neurologic involvement in Wegener's granulomatosis. Neurology 1993;43:1334-7.
293. Archer GE, Sampson JH, McLendon RE, et al. Intrathecal busulfan treatment of human neoplastic meningitis in athymic nude rats. J Neurooncol 1999;44:233-41.
294. Champagne MA, Silver HK. Intrathecal dacarbazine treatment of leptomeningeal malignant melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:1203-4.
295. Kooistra KL, Rodriguez M, Powis G. Toxicity of intrathecally administered cytotoxic drugs and their antitumor activity against an intrathecal Walker 256 carcinosarcoma model for meningeal carcinomatosis in the rat. Cancer Res 1989;49:977-82.
296. Berg SL, Balis FM, Zimm S, et al. Phase I/II trial and pharmacokinetics of intrathecal diaziquone in refractory meningeal malignancies. J Clin Oncol 1992;10:143-8.
297. Huang TY, Arita N, Hayakawa T, et al. ACNU, MTX and 5-FU penetration of rat brain tissue and tumors. J Neurooncol 1999;45:9-17.
298. Nakagawa H, Yamada M, Fukushima M, et al. Intrathecal 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine (FdUrd) for the treatment of solid tumor neoplastic meningitis: an in vivo study. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1999;43:247-56.
299. Fuchs HE, Archer GE, Colvin OM, et al. Activity of intrathecal 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide in a nude rat model of human neoplastic meningitis. Cancer Res 1990; 50:1954-9.
300. Phillips PC, Than TT, Cork LC, et al. Intrathecal 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide: neurotoxicity, cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics, and antitumor activity in a rabbit model of VX2 leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Cancer Res 1992;52:6168-74.
301. Blaney SM, Poplack DG. Neoplastic meningitis: diagnosis and treatment considerations. Med Oncol 2000;17:151-62.
302. Slavc I, Schuller E, Czech T, et al. Intrathecal mafosfamide therapy for pediatric brain tumors with meningeal dissemination. J Neurooncol 1998;38:213-8.
303. Friedman HS, Archer GE, McLendon RE, et al. Intrathecal melphalan therapy of human neoplastic meningitis in athymic nude rats. Cancer Res 1994;54:4710-4.
304. Yoshida TK, Beuls E, Shimizu K, et al. Intrathecal chemotherapy with ACNU for meningeal gliomatosis. Br J Cancer 1992;66:999-1004.
305. Huang TY, Howng SL. Intrathecal ACNU against experimental leptomeningeal tumors. Kao Hsiung I Hsueh Ko Hsueh Tsa Chih 1997;13:626-30.
306. Terzis AJ, Fiskerstrand T, Refsum H, et al. Proliferation, migration and invasion of human glioma cells exposed to antifolate drugs. Int J Cancer 1993;54:112-8.