Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: Diagnosis and management

American Journal of Clinical Dermatology

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 165-175

  Patel, Girish K ^a   Finlay, Andrew Y ^a  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; DESMOGLEIN 1; EXOTOXIN; FLUCLOXACILLIN; METICILLIN; OPIATE;

CLINICAL FEATURE; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS;

BIOPSY, NEEDLE; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DRUG RESISTANCE, MICROBIAL; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; FEMALE; FLOXACILLIN; HUMANS; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INCIDENCE; INFANT; INFUSIONS, INTRAVENOUS; MALE; PENICILLINS; PROGNOSIS; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SEX DISTRIBUTION; STAPHYLOCOCCAL SCALDED SKIN SYNDROME; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 0037238485     PISSN: 11750561     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00128071-200304030-00003     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Ritter von Rittershain G. Die exfoliativa dermatitis jüngerer Säulinge. Centralz Kinderheilk 1878; 2: 3-23
2. Lyell A. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: an eruption resembling scalding of the skin. Br J Dermatol 1956; 68: 355-61
3. Lyell A, Dick HM, Alexander JO. Outbreak of toxic epidermal necrolysis associated with staphylococci. Lancet 1969; 1: 787-9
4. Lyell A. A review of toxic epidermal necrolysis in Britain. Br J Dermatol 1967; 79: 662-71
5. Jefferson J. Lyell's toxic epidermal necrolysis: a staphylococcal aetiology? BMJ 1967; 555: 802-4
6. Tyson RG, Ushinski SC, Kisilevsky R. Toxic epidermal necrolysis (the scalded skin syndrome): its association in two cases with pathogenic staphylococci and its similarity in infancy to Ritter's disease. Am J Dis Child 1966; 111: 386-92
7. Messaritakis J. Toxic epidermal necrolysis in children: description of 4 cases. Ann Paediatr 1966; 207 (4): 236-46
8. Melish ME, Glasgow LA. The staphylococcal scalded-skin syndrome. N Engl J Med 1970; 282: 1114-9
9. Kapral FA, Miller MM. Product of Staphylococcus aureus responsible for the scalded skin syndrome. Infect Immun 1971; 4: 541-5
10. Melish ME, Glasgow LA, Turner MD. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: isolation and partial characterisation of the exfoliative toxin. J Infect Dis 1972; 125: 129-40
11. Elias PM, Fritsch P, Mittermayer H, et al. Experimental staphylococcal toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) in adult humans and mice. J Lab Clin Med 1974; 84: 414-24
12. Lyell A. The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome a historical perspective: emergence of dermopathic strains of Staphylococcal aureus and the discovery of the epidermolytic toxin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983; 9: 285-94
13. Levine G, Norden CW. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult. N Engl J Med 1972; 287: 1339-40
14. Patel GK, Varma S, Finlay AY, Staphylococcal sealded skin syndrome in healthy adults. Br J Dermatol 2000; 142 (6): 1253-5
15. Amagai M, Matsuyoshi N. Wang ZH. et al. Toxin in bullous impetigo and staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome targets desmoglein 1. Nature Med 2000; 6: 1275-7
16. Elias PM, Fritsch P, Epstein EV. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: clinical features, pathogenesis, and recent microbiological and biochemical developments. Arch Dermatol 1977; 113: 207-19
17. Elias PM, Levy' SW. Bullous impetigo: occurrence of scalded skin syndrome in an adult. Arch Dermatol 1976; 112: 856-8
18. Falk DK, King LE. Criteria for the diagnosis of Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in adults. Cutis 1983; 31: 431-4
19. Lowney ED, Baublis JV, Kreye GM, et al. The scalded skin syndrome in small children. Arch Dermatol 1967; 95: 359-69
20. Moss C, Gupta E. The Nikolsky sign m staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome [letterl. Arch Dis Child 1998: 79: 290
21. Shelley ED, Shelley WB, Talanin NY. Chronic staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1998; 139: 319-24
22. Reid LH, Weston WL, Humbert JR. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: adult patient with deficient cell mediated immunity. Arch Dermatol 1976; 112: 1275-9
23. Fine JD, Harrist TJ, Radford MJ. Adult scalded skin syndrome fatally complicated by mixed gram-negative sepsis and cellulitis. Cutis 1981; 27: 162-7
24. Norden CW, Mendelow H. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in adults [letter]. N Engl J Med 1974; 290: 577
25. Todd JK. Staphylococcal toxin syndromes. Annu Rev Med 1985; 36: 337-47
26. Amon RB, Dimond RL. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: rapid differentiation between staphylococcal- and drug-induced disease, Arch Dermatol 1975; 111: 1433-7
27. Dimond RL. Wolff HH, Braun-Falco O. The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: an experimental histochemical and electron microscopy study. Br J Dermatol 1977; 96: 483-92
28. Robinson ND, Hashimoto T, Amagai M, et al. The new pemphigus variants. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 40: 649-71
29. Breathnach SM, McGibbon DH, Ives FE, et al. Carbamazepine (Tegretol) and toxic epidermal necrolysis: report of three cases with histopathological observations. Clin Exp Dermatol 1982; 7: 585-91
30. Gillespie WA, Pope RC, Simpson K. Pemphigus neonatorum caused by Staphylococcal aureus type 71. BMJ 1957; 1: 1044-6
31. Willard D, Montell H, Piermont Y, et al. Exfoliatine dans les staphylococcies neonatales. Nouv Presse Med 1982; 11: 3769-71
32. Parker MT. Some cultural characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus strains from superficial skin infections. J Hyg (Lond) 1958; 56: 238-53
33. Arbuthnott JP, Kent K, Lyell A, et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis produced by an extracellular product of Staphylococcus aureus. Br J Dermatol 1971; 85: 145-9
34. Lina G, Gillet Y, Vadenesch F, et al. Toxin involvement in Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 1369-73
35. Arbuthnott JP, Gemmel CG, Kent J, et al. Haemolysin and enzyme patterns of coagulase-positive staphylococci isolated from toxic epidermal necrolysis. Ritter's disease and impetigo contagiosa. J Med Microbiol 1969; 2: 479-87
36. Dancer SJ, Garratt R, Saldanha J, et al. The epidermolytic toxins are serine proteinases. FEBS Lett 1990; 268: 129-32
37. Wiley BB, Allman S, Rogolsky M, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: potentiation by immunosuppression in mice: toxin-mediated exfoliation in a healthy adult. Infect Immun 1974; 9: 636-40
38. Rogolosky M, Wiley BB, Glasgow LA. Phage group II Staphylococcal strains with chromosomal and extra-chromosomal genes for exfoliative toxin production. Infect Immun 1976; 13: 44-52
39. Oono T, Kanzaki H, Yoshioka T, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult: identification of exfoliative toxin A and B genes by polymerase chain reaction. Dermatology 1997; 195: 268-70
40. Criber B, Piemont Y, Grosshans E. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in adults. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 30: 319-24
41. Kawabata A. Ichiyama S, Inuma Y, et al. Exfoliative toxin detection using reverse passive latex agglutination: clinical and epidemiologic application. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 1984-7
42. Sarai Y, Nikahara H, Ishikawa T, et al. A bacteriological study on children with staphylococcal toxic epidermal necrolysis in Japan. Dermatologica 1977; 154: 161-7
43. Murono K, Fujita K, Yoshika H. Microbiological characteristics of exfoliative toxin-producing Staphylococcus aureus. Paediatr Infect Dis J 1988; 7: 313-5
44. De Azevedo JCS, Arbuthnott JP. Assays for epidermolytic toxin of Staphylococcus aureus. Methods Enzymol 1988; 165: 333-8
45. Rifai S, Barbancon V, Prevost G, et al. Synthetic exfoliative toxin A and B DNA probes for detection of toxigenic Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27: 504-6
46. Murono K, Fujita K, Yoskioka H. Detection of staphylococcal exfoliative toxin by slide latex agglutination. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 271-4
47. Hoeger PH, Elsner P. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: transmission of the exfoliatin-producing Staphylococcus aureus by asymptomatic carriers. Pediatr Infect Dis 1988; 7: 340-2
48. Dave J, Reith S, Nash JQ, et al. A double outbreak of exfoliative toxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus in a maternity unit. Epidemiol Infect 1994; 112: 103-14
49. Curran JP, Al-Sahili FL. Neonatal staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: massive outbreak due to an unusual phage type. Paediatrics 1980; 66: 285-90
50. Opal SM, Johnson-Winegar AD, Cross AS. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in two immunocompetent adults caused by exfoliating B-producing Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 1283-6
51. Diem E, Konrad K, Graninger W. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult with fatal disseminated sepsis. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1982; 62: 295-9
52. Petzelbauer P, Konrad K, Wolff K. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in 2 adults with acute kidney failure. Hautarzt 1989; 40: 90-3
53. Rothenberg R, Renna F, Drew T. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult. Arch Dermatol 1973; 108: 408-10
54. Neefe LI, Tuazon CV, Cardella TA, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in adults: case report and review of the literature. Am J Med Sci 1979; 277: 99-110
55. Borchers SL, Gomez EC, Isseroff RR. Generalized staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an anephric boy undergoing hemodialysis. Arch Dermatol 1984; 120: 912-8
56. Donohue D, Robinson B, Goldberg NS. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in a woman with chronic renal failure exposed to human immunodeficiency virus. Cutis 1991; 47: 317-8
57. Elsner P, Hartmann AA. Epidemiology of ETA- and ETB- producing staphylococci in dermatological patients [abstract]. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [A] 1988; 268: 534
58. Arbuthnott JP. Characterisation of the epidermolytic toxins of Staphylococcus aureus. In: Macdonald A, Smith G, editors. The Staphylococci: proceedings of the Alexander Ogston Centennial Conference. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. 1981: 109-18
59. Acland KM, Darvay A, Griffin C, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 518-20
60. McLay ALC, Arbuthnott JP. Lyell A. Action of Staphylococcal epidermolytic toxin on mouse skin: an electron microscopy study. J Invest Dermatol 1975; 65: 423-8
61. Sato H, Matsumori Y, Tanabe T, et al. A new type of staphylococcal exfoliative toxin from a Staphylococcus aureus strain isolated from a horse with phlegmon. Infect Immun 1994; 62: 3780-5
62. Lillibridge CB, Melish ME, Glasgow LA. Site of action of exfoliative toxin in the staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Pediatrics 1972; 50: 728-38
63. Kapral FA, Miller NM. Product of Staphylococcal aureus responsible for the staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Infect Immun 1971; 4: 541-5
64. Arbuthnott JP, Kent J, Lyell A, et al. Studies of staphylococcal toxins in relation to toxic epidermal necrolysis: the scalded skin syndrome [supplement]. Br J Dermatol 1972; 86: s35-9
65. Wuepper KD, Dimond RL, Knutson DD. Studies of the mechanism of epidermal injury by Staphylococcal epidermolytic toxin. J Invest Dermatol 1975; 65: 191-200
66. Melish ME, Chen FS, Sprouse S, et al. Epidermolytic toxin in staphylococcal infection: toxin levels and host response. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg Suppl 1981; 10: 287-98
67. Bailey CJ, de Azavedo J, Arbuthnott JP. A comparative study of two serotypes of epidermolytic toxin from Staphylococcus aureus. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 624: 111-20
68. Kondo I, Sakurai S, Sarai Y. New type of exfoliatin obtained from staphylococcal strains, belonging to phage groups other than group II, isolated from patients with impetigo and Ritter's disease. Infect Immun 1974; 10: 851-61
69. Sakurai S, Suzuki H, Kondo I. DNA sequencing of the eta gene coding for Staphylococcal exfoliative toxin serotype A. J Gen Microbiol 1988; 134: 711-7
70. Lee CY, Schmidt JJ, Jobnson-Winegar AD, et al. Sequence determination and comparison of exfoliative toxin A and B genes from Staphylococcal aureus. J Bacteriol 1987; 169: 3904-9
71. O'Toole PW, Foster TJ. Nucleotide sequence of the epidermolytic toxin A gene of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1987; 169: 3910-5
72. Sakuria S, Suzuki H, Kondo I. Cloning of the gene coding for Staphylococcal exfoliative toxin A and its expression in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1987; 42: 63-7
73. Smith TP, John DA, Bailey CJ. The binding of epidermolytic toxin from staphylococcus aureus to mouse epidermal tissue. Histochem J 1987; 19: 135-49
74. Gentihomme E, Faure M, Piemont Y, et al. Action of staphylococcal exfoliative toxins on epidermal cell cultures and organotypic skin. J Dermatol 1990; 17: 526-32
75. Vath GM, Earhart CA, Rago JV, et al. The structure of the superantigen exfoliative toxin A suggests a novel regulation as a serine protease. Biochemistry 1997; 36: 1559-66
76. Prevost G, Rifai S, Chaix ML, et al. Functional evidence that Ser-195 residue of Staphylococcal exfoliative toxin A is essential for biological activity. Infect Immun 1991; 59: 3337-9
77. Redpath MB, Foster TJ, Bailey CJ. The role of serine protease active site in the mode of action of epidermolytic toxin of S. aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1991; 81: 151-6
78. Jaulhac B, Piemont Y, Prevost G. Staphylococcal exfoliative toxins induce proteolytic activity when combined with epidermis. In: Mollby R, Flock JI, Nord CE, et al., editors. Staphylococci and staphylococcal infections. New York: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1994: 280-2
79. Barbosa JARG, Saldanaha JW, Garratt RC. Novel features of serine protease active sites and specificity pockets: sequence analysis and modelling studies of glutamate-specific endopeptidases and epidermolytic toxins. Protein Eng 1996; 9: 591-601
80. Rago JV, Vath GM, Tripp TJ, et al. Staphylococcal exfoliative toxins cleave alpha-and beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormones. Infect Immun 2000; 68: 2366-8
81. Mahoney MG, Wang Z, Rothenberger K, et al. Explanation for the clinical and microscopic localization of lesions in pemphigus foliaceous and vulgaris. J Clin Invest 1999; 103: 461-8
82. Marrack P, Kappler J. The staphylococcal enterotoxins and their relatives. Science 1990; 346: 471-3
83. Khuong MA, Chosidow O, Solh NE, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult: possible influence of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Dermatology 1993; 186: 153-4
84. Haas Baker D, Wuepper KD, Rasmussen JE. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: detection of antibody to epidermolytic toxin by a primary binding assay. Clin Exp Dermatol 1978; 3: 17-24
85. Wiley B, Glasgow L, Rogolsky M. Studies on staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS): isolation and purification of toxin and development of a radio-immunobinding assay for antibodies to exfoliative toxin (ET). In: Jeljaszewicz J, editor. Staphylococci and staphylococcal diseases. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1976: 499-516
86. Beer B, Wilson B. Adult staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Int J Dermatol 1990; 29: 428-9
87. Herzog JL, Sexton M. Desquamative rash in an immunocompromised adult. Arch Dermatol 1990; 26: 815-9
88. Trentham DE, Silvermann HA, Townes AS. Cause of adult toxic epidermal necrolysis [letter]. N Engl J Med 1975; 292: 870
89. Saiag P, Caumes E, Roujeau JC, et al. Epidermolyse staphylococcique (syndrome de Lyell staphylococcique) de l'adult: 2 cas. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1988; 115: 1164-6
90. Fritsch P, Elias P, Varga J. The fate of Staphylococcal exfoliatin in newborn and adult mice. Br J Dermatol 1976; 95: 275-84
91. Kirmani N, Tauzon CU, Murray HW, et al. Staphylococcus aureus carriage rate of patients receiving long term haemodialysis. Arch Intern Med 1978; 138: 467-75
92. Rothenburg R, Renna FS, Drew TM, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult. Arch Dermatol 1973; 108: 408-10
93. Epstein Jr EH, Flynn P, Davis RS. Adult toxic epidermal necrolysis and fatal staphylococcal septicaemia. JAMA 1974; 229: 425-7
94. O'Keefe R, Dagg JH, Mackie RM. The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in two elderly immunocompromised patients. BMJ 1987; 295: 179-80
95. Roeb E, Schonfelder T, Matern S, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an immunocompromised adult. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996; 15: 499-503
96. Strumia R, Bedetti A, Cavazzini L. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in corso di AIDS. G Ital Dermatol Venereol 1990; 125: 461-4
97. Farrell AM, Ross JS, Umasankar S, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an HIV-1 seropositive man. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134: 962-5
98. Hawley HB, Aronson MD. Scalded skin syndromes in adults. N Engl J Med 1972; 288: 130
99. Melish ME, Chen FS, Sprouse S, et al. Epidermolytic toxin in staphylococcal infection: toxin levels and host response. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg Suppl 1981; 10: 287-98
100. Ridgway HB, Lowe NJ. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in an adult with Hodgkin's disease. Arch Dermatol 1979; 115: 589-90
101. Melish ME, Glasgow LA. The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: the expanded clinical syndrome. J Paediatr 1971; 78: 958-67
102. Rassmussen JE. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: a review of 75 cases in children. Arch Dermatol 1975; 111: 1135-9
103. Rudolph RI, Shwartz W, Leyden JJ. Treatment of staphylococcal toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Dermatol 1974; 110: 559-62
104. Yokota S, Imagawa T, Katakura S, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome caused by exfoliative toxin B-producing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [letter]. Eur J Paediatr 1996; 155: 722
105. Mackenzie A, Johnson W, Heyes B, et al. A prolonged outbreak of exfoliative toxin A-producing Staphylococcus aureus in a newborn nursery. Diagn Microbiol Intact Dis 1995; 21: 69-75