"Trained brains are better than trained muscles": Scientific management and Canadian nurses, 1910-1939

Nursing History Review

Volumn 11, Issue , 2003, Pages 89-108

  Toman, Cynthia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANADA; LEADERSHIP; NURSE; NURSING; REVIEW; SKILL; WAR; WORK; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HOSPITAL; HOSPITAL MANAGEMENT; NURSING EDUCATION; NURSING PROCESS; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PHILOSOPHY; TASK PERFORMANCE; TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT;

CANADA; EDUCATION, NURSING; EFFICIENCY, ORGANIZATIONAL; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATION; HOSPITALS; NURSING PROCESS; PHILOSOPHY, NURSING; TIME AND MOTION STUDIES; TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT;

EID: 0037208806     PISSN: 10628061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1891/1062-8061.11.1.89     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. John M. Staudenmaier, "What SHOT Hath Wrought and What SHOT Hath Not: Reflections on Twenty-five Years of the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 25, no. 4 (1984): 718-19; "Recent Trends in the History of Technology," American Historical Review 95 (June 1990): 715-25.
2. John M. Staudenmaier, "What SHOT Hath Wrought and What SHOT Hath Not: Reflections on Twenty-five Years of the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 25, no. 4 (1984): 718-19; "Recent Trends in the History of Technology," American Historical Review 95 (June 1990): 715-25.
3. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
4. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
5. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
6. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
7. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
8. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1911). Taylor's steps included: identify several men considered expert in the skill, study the exact series of operations and the implements used, study the time required with a stop watch, eliminate all useless movements, and standardize the skill using the best movements and the best implements. See also J. C. Spender and Hugo J. Kijne, Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor's Gift to the World? (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996): 66-68. Other important components were incentive wage plans and the establishment of a system of foremen who controlled the day-to-day enforcement of the "one best way." Daniel Nelson elaborates Taylor's methods in Frederick W Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980). See also Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., ed., Technology in America: A History of Individuals and Ideas (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1981), and Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979). The most recent and comprehensive work on Taylor is Robert Kanagel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
9. Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor, 131-36, 180.
10. Spender and Kijne describe many of these SM revivals in Scientific Management.
11. See Hugh G. J. Aitkin, Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal: Scientific Management in Action, 1908-1915 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960): 12. Aitkin argues that SM upset established roles and familiar behavior patterns, established new systems of authority and control, and created new sources of insecurity, anxiety, and resentment; while suggesting that SM challenged ideas about what constitutes "a job" and who has "property rights" to a job.
12. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), and "Community and Communities: The Evolution of the American Hospital," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989): 3-17; see also Joel D. Howell, "Machines and Medicine: Technology Transforms the American Hospital," in American General Hospital: 109-34 and Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
13. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), and "Community and Communities: The Evolution of the American Hospital," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989): 3-17; see also Joel D. Howell, "Machines and Medicine: Technology Transforms the American Hospital," in American General Hospital: 109-34 and Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
14. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), and "Community and Communities: The Evolution of the American Hospital," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989): 3-17; see also Joel D. Howell, "Machines and Medicine: Technology Transforms the American Hospital," in American General Hospital: 109-34 and Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
15. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), and "Community and Communities: The Evolution of the American Hospital," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989): 3-17; see also Joel D. Howell, "Machines and Medicine: Technology Transforms the American Hospital," in American General Hospital: 109-34 and Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
16. The literature is explicit on SM and the conduct of time and motion studies, including each part of the process. Refer to notes 2, 4, and 5 for excellent references.
17. Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964): 20.
18. Michael Rose, Industrial Behavior: Theoretical Development Since Taylor (New York: Penguin Books, 1975): 32.
19. Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: ix.
20. These hospital manuals and procedure books are from the Ottawa Civic Hospital School of Nursing Archives (hereafter cited as OCHA) in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
21. All data attributed to Gertrude Armstrong Fawcett are from her interview with the author in Ottawa, 16 March 1999. All data attributed to Jean Milligan are from her interview with the author in Ottawa, 31 October 1997. These interviews were conducted under approval of the University of Ottawa Research Ethics Board, with signed informed consents on file.
22. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989): 53-54; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974): 24-38 and 155-68; Eric Schatzberg, "Ideology and Technical Change: The Decline of the Wooden Airplane," Technology and Culture 35, no. 1 (January 1994): 34-69; and Joy Parr, "What Makes Washday Less Blue? Gender, Nation, and Technology Choice in Postwar Canada," Technology and Culture 38, no. 1 (January 1997): 153-86.
23. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989): 53-54; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974): 24-38 and 155-68; Eric Schatzberg, "Ideology and Technical Change: The Decline of the Wooden Airplane," Technology and Culture 35, no. 1 (January 1994): 34-69; and Joy Parr, "What Makes Washday Less Blue? Gender, Nation, and Technology Choice in Postwar Canada," Technology and Culture 38, no. 1 (January 1997): 153-86.
24. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989): 53-54; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974): 24-38 and 155-68; Eric Schatzberg, "Ideology and Technical Change: The Decline of the Wooden Airplane," Technology and Culture 35, no. 1 (January 1994): 34-69; and Joy Parr, "What Makes Washday Less Blue? Gender, Nation, and Technology Choice in Postwar Canada," Technology and Culture 38, no. 1 (January 1997): 153-86.
25. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989): 53-54; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974): 24-38 and 155-68; Eric Schatzberg, "Ideology and Technical Change: The Decline of the Wooden Airplane," Technology and Culture 35, no. 1 (January 1994): 34-69; and Joy Parr, "What Makes Washday Less Blue? Gender, Nation, and Technology Choice in Postwar Canada," Technology and Culture 38, no. 1 (January 1997): 153-86.
26. Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993): 373, as cited by George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, Carl D'Arcy, Peter New, and George Torrance (Vancouver, Canada: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ltd., 1981): 254-73.
27. Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993): 373, as cited by George M. Torrance, "Hospitals as Health Factories," in Health and Canadian Society: Sociological Perspectives, ed. David Coburn, Carl D'Arcy, Peter New, and George Torrance (Vancouver, Canada: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ltd., 1981): 254-73.
28. Rosenberg, "Community and Communities": 10
29. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: 30-35.
30. Elizabeth Laura Lewis, "The Division of Nursing Labor in the Hospital: The Role of 'Scientific Management'" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1990).
31. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing and dualistic thinking, two excellent sources are Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity, " Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46, and Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," Nursing History Review 2 (1994): 3-28.
32. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing and dualistic thinking, two excellent sources are Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity, " Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46, and Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," Nursing History Review 2 (1994): 3-28.
33. For an analysis of the domestic roots of nursing and dualistic thinking, two excellent sources are Patricia D'Antonio, "Legacy of Domesticity, " Nursing History Review 1 (1993): 229-46, and Diane Hamilton, "Constructing the Mind of Nursing," Nursing History Review 2 (1994): 3-28.
34. Susan M. Reverby, "A Legitimate Relationship: Nursing, Hospitals, and Science in the Twentieth Century," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989): 135-56, and in Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987): 143-49; Kathryn McPherson, Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996): 88, and "Science and Technique: Nurses' Work in a Canadian Hospital, 1920-1939," in Caring and Curing: Historical Perspectives on Women and Healing in Canada, ed. Dianne Dodd and Deborah Gorham (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1994): 71-101.
35. Susan M. Reverby, "A Legitimate Relationship: Nursing, Hospitals, and Science in the Twentieth Century," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989): 135-56, and in Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987): 143-49; Kathryn McPherson, Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996): 88, and "Science and Technique: Nurses' Work in a Canadian Hospital, 1920-1939," in Caring and Curing: Historical Perspectives on Women and Healing in Canada, ed. Dianne Dodd and Deborah Gorham (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1994): 71-101.
36. Susan M. Reverby, "A Legitimate Relationship: Nursing, Hospitals, and Science in the Twentieth Century," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989): 135-56, and in Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987): 143-49; Kathryn McPherson, Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996): 88, and "Science and Technique: Nurses' Work in a Canadian Hospital, 1920-1939," in Caring and Curing: Historical Perspectives on Women and Healing in Canada, ed. Dianne Dodd and Deborah Gorham (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1994): 71-101.
37. Susan M. Reverby, "A Legitimate Relationship: Nursing, Hospitals, and Science in the Twentieth Century," in The American General Hospital: Communities and Social Contexts, ed. Diana Elizabeth Long and Janet Golden (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989): 135-56, and in Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987): 143-49; Kathryn McPherson, Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996): 88, and "Science and Technique: Nurses' Work in a Canadian Hospital, 1920-1939," in Caring and Curing: Historical Perspectives on Women and Healing in Canada, ed. Dianne Dodd and Deborah Gorham (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1994): 71-101.
38. Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand" Work, Culture, and Conflict in American Nursing (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982): 160-83.
39. "Fisher's Folly": A History of the Ottawa Civic Hospital, 1924-1984 (Ottawa: Banfield-Seguin, Ltd., n.d.), and the Hospital Annual Reports, 1924-1944.
40. George M. Weir, Survey of Nursing Education in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1933).
41. Milligan interview.
42. Henry Ford, My Life and Work (New York: Doubleday, Page, and Company, 1923).
43. See James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1988): 117-25, and Stephen Meyer, The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981): 5, 23-24.
44. See James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1988): 117-25, and Stephen Meyer, The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981): 5, 23-24.
45. Minutes of the City Council, 2 August 1949, City of Ottawa Archives, Ottawa, Canada.
46. Milligan interview. The term "follow up" instructor appears in the school of nursing minutes and hospital reports, referring to nursing instructors who moved between the wards, assisting students with procedures and skills. McPherson made this important link between procedure books and boundaries for safety in "Science and Technique": 71-101.
47. A collection of these manuals may be found in the OCHA.
48. Bertha Harmer, Textbook of the Principles and Practice of Nursing (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923).
49. Rose, Industrial Behavior: 37.
50. McPherson, "Science and Technique": 82, and Bedside Matters: 88 and 91.
51. McPherson, "Science and Technique": 82, and Bedside Matters: 88 and 91.
52. McPherson, Bedside Matters: 166 and 218-19.
53. See Frances Waugh, "Motion and Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 3 (May 1942): 21-22, and Louise Boyd Taylor, "A Detailed Study of Time Required for Nursing Nine Surgical Patients," Trained Nurse and Hospital Review 88, no. 6 (June 1932): 735-37.
54. See Frances Waugh, "Motion and Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 3 (May 1942): 21-22, and Louise Boyd Taylor, "A Detailed Study of Time Required for Nursing Nine Surgical Patients," Trained Nurse and Hospital Review 88, no. 6 (June 1932): 735-37.
55. Frank Gilbreth, "Scientific Management in the Hospital," Modern Hospital 3 (1914): 322.
56. Frank Gilbreth, "Motion Study in Surgery," Canadian Journal of Medicine and Surgery 40 (1916): 31.
57. S. Lillian Clayton, "Advantages and Disadvantages of Standardising Nursing Technique," Canadian Nurse 24, no. 4 (1928): 192.
58. Ibid., 194.
59. For an example, see the "Efficiency Record," form #7, September 1935, OCHA.
60. Francis Goodell, "Research Of, By, and For the Nurse," American Journal of Nursing 32, no. 10 (October 1932): 1020.
61. Robert L. Dickinson, "Standardization of Surgery: An Attack on the Problem," Journal of the American Medical Association 63, no. 9 (29 August 1914): 763-65.
62. Typical operating room setup cards may be found in the OCHA.
63. Percy Brown, "A Few Facts About Scientific Management in Industry," Canadian Nurse 23, no. 11 (November 1927): 568-71, 577.
64. Compare the study on "Details of Shoe-Shining Operation" found in William O. Lichmer, Time Study and Job Analysis: As Applied to Standardization of Methods and Operations (New York: Ronald Press Company, 1921): 29 with Marion Ferguson, "What Do We Do With Our Nursing Time? " Public Health Nursing (March 1941): 144-49.
65. Compare the study on "Details of Shoe-Shining Operation" found in William O. Lichmer, Time Study and Job Analysis: As Applied to Standardization of Methods and Operations (New York: Ronald Press Company, 1921): 29 with Marion Ferguson, "What Do We Do With Our Nursing Time? " Public Health Nursing (March 1941): 144-49.
66. Gertrude M. Hall, "Finding the Time," Canadian Nurse 37, no. 12 (December 1941): 824-26; "Miss Martin Makes a Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 1 (January 1942): 30-32; and "Miss Martin Presents Her Report," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 2 (February 1942): 99-100. Waugh, "Motion and Time Study": 321-22.
67. Gertrude M. Hall, "Finding the Time," Canadian Nurse 37, no. 12 (December 1941): 824-26; "Miss Martin Makes a Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 1 (January 1942): 30-32; and "Miss Martin Presents Her Report," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 2 (February 1942): 99-100. Waugh, "Motion and Time Study": 321-22.
68. Gertrude M. Hall, "Finding the Time," Canadian Nurse 37, no. 12 (December 1941): 824-26; "Miss Martin Makes a Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 1 (January 1942): 30-32; and "Miss Martin Presents Her Report," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 2 (February 1942): 99-100. Waugh, "Motion and Time Study": 321-22.
69. Gertrude M. Hall, "Finding the Time," Canadian Nurse 37, no. 12 (December 1941): 824-26; "Miss Martin Makes a Time Study," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 1 (January 1942): 30-32; and "Miss Martin Presents Her Report," Canadian Nurse 38, no. 2 (February 1942): 99-100. Waugh, "Motion and Time Study": 321-22.
70. Patricia Benner and Judith Wrubel, The Primacy of Caring: Stress and Coping in Health and Illness (Don Mills, Ontario: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1989): 50-53.
71. Reverby, Ordered to Care, 1, and "A Legitimate
72. Reverby, Ordered to Care, 1, and "A Legitimate
73. Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": 160-83.
74. Minnie Goodnow, "Efficiency in the Care of the Patient," Trained Nurse and Hospital Review 53, no. 6 (December 1914): 321 and 54, no. 1 (January 1915): 7-10.
75. Minnie Goodnow, "Efficiency in the Care of the Patient," Trained Nurse and Hospital Review 53, no. 6 (December 1914): 321 and 54, no. 1 (January 1915): 7-10.
76. Clayton, "Advantages and Disadvantages": 195.
77. Isabel M. Stewart, "Possibilities of Standardization in Nursing Technique," Modern Hospital 12 (June 1919): 451-54.
78. Ibid., 451-52.
79. Reverby, "A Legitimate Relationship": 142-43.
80. Stewart, "Possibilities of Standardization": 453.