The fate of clades in a world of recurrent climatic change: Milankovitch oscillations and evolution

Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics

Volumn 33, Issue , 2002, Pages 741-777

  Jansson, Roland ^a   Dynesius, Mats ^a  

^a UMEÅ UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Biodiversity gradients; Geographical range size; Macroecology; Phylogeography; Speciation

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOGRAPHY; CLADISTICS; CLIMATE CHANGE; EVOLUTION; MILANKOVITCH CYCLE; SPECIATION (BIOLOGY);

EID: 0036919019     PISSN: 00664162     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150520     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. Allmon WD, Morris PJ, McKinney ML. 1998. An intermediate disturbance hypothesis of maximal speciation. In Biodiversity Dynamics, ed. ML McKinney, JA Drake, pp. 349-76. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
2. Ashworth AC. 1996. The response of arctic Carabidae (Coleoptera) to climate change based on the fossil record of the Quaternary Period. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 33:125-31
3. Avise JC. 2000. Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species. London: Harvard Univ. Press
4. Avise JC, Arnold J, Ball RM, Bermingham E, Lamb T, et al. 1987. Intraspecific phylogeography: The mitochondrial DNA bridge between population genetics and systematics. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:489-522
5. Avise JC, Walker D, Johns GC. 1998. Speciation durations and Pleistocene effects on vertebrate phylogeography. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 265:1707-12
6. Balmford A. 1996. Extinction filters and current resilience: The significance of past selection pressures for conservation biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11:193-96
7. Bell MA. 1988. Stickleback fishes: Bridging the gap between population biology and paleobiology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 3:320-25
8. Bennett KD. 1990. Milankovitch cycles and their effects on species in ecological and evolutionary time. Paleobiology 16:11-21
9. Bennett KD. 1997. Evolution and Ecology: The Pace of Life. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
10. Bennett KD, Tzedakis PC, Willis KJ. 1991. Quaternary refugia of north European trees. J. Biogeogr. 18:103-15
11. Berger A. 1988. Milankovitch theory and climate. Rev. Geophys. 26:624-57
12. Berger A, Loutre MF. 1991. Insolation values for the climate of the last 10 million years. Quat. Sci. Rev. 10:297-317
13. Bernatchez L, Wilson CC. 1998. Comparative phylogeography of nearctic and palearctic fishes. Mol. Ecol. 7:431-52
14. Bierzychudek P. 1985. Patterns in plant parthogenesis. Experientia 41:1255-64
15. Billington N, Hebert PDN. 1991. Mitochondrial DNA diversity in fishes and its implications for introductions. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48:80-94
16. Blackburn TM, Gaston KJ. 1996. A sideways look at patterns in species richness, or why there are so few species outside the tropics. Biodivers. Lett. 3:44-53
17. Bohonak AJ. 1999. Dispersal, gene flow, and population structure. Q. Rev. Biol. 74:21-45
18. Bond WJ. 1995. Assessing the Risk of Plant Extinction Due to Pollinator and Disperser Failure. See Lawton & May 1995, pp. 131-46
19. Bowers MA, Harris LC. 1994. A large-scale metapopulation model of interspecific competition and environmental change. Ecol. Model. 72:251-73
20. Brawn JD, Collins TM, Medina M, Bermingham E. 1996. Associations between physical isolation and geographical variation within three species of Neotropical birds. Mol. Ecol. 5:33-46
21. Brochmann C, Elven R. 1992. Ecological and genetic consequences of polyploidy in arctic Draba (Brassicaceae). Evol. Trends Plant. 6:111-24
22. Brown JH. 1995. Macroecology. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
23. Cain ML, Milligan BG, Strand AE. 2000. Long-distance seed dispersal in plant populations. Am. J. Bot. 87:1217-27
24. Chown SL. 1997. Speciation and rarity: Separating cause from consequence. In The Biology of Rarity, ed. WE Kunin, KJ Gaston, pp. 91-107. London: Chapman & Hall
25. Churchill SP, Balslev H, Forero E, Luteyn JL, eds. 1995. Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. New York: NY Bot. Gard.
26. Churchill SP, Griffin D, Lewis M. 1995. Moss Diversity of the Tropical Andes. See Churchill et al. 1995, pp. 335-46
27. Clark JS, Fastie C, Hurtt G, Jackson ST, Johnson C, et al. 1998. Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration: Dispersal theory and interpretation of paleoecological records. Bioscience 48:13-24
28. Clarke A, Crame JA. 1997. Diversity, latitude and time: Patterns in the shallow sea. In Marine Biodiversity. Patterns and Processes, ed. RFG Ormond, JD Gage, MV Angel, pp. 122-47. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
29. Cody ML, Overton JM. 1996. Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal in island plant populations. J. Ecol. 84:53-61
30. Cohen AS, Johnston MR. 1987. Speciation in brooding and poorly dispersing lacustrine organisms. Palaios 2:426-35
31. Colwell RK, Lees DC. 2000. The mid-domain effect: Geometric constraints on the geography of species richness. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15:70-76
32. Comes HP, Kadereit JW. 1998. The effect of Quaternary climatic changes on plant distribution and evolution. Trends Plant Sci. 3:432-38
33. Coope GR. 1979. Late Cenozoic fossil Coleoptera: Evolution, biogeography, and ecology. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10:247-67
34. Coope GR. 1994. The response of insect faunas to glacial-interglacial climatic fluctuations. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 344:19-26
35. Coope GR. 1995. Insect Faunas in Ice Age Environments: Why so Little Extinction? See Lawton & May 1995, pp. 55-74
36. Cowling RM, Cartwright CR, Parkington JE, Allsopp JC. 1999. Fossil wood charcoal assemblages from Elands Bay Cave, South Africa: Implications for Late Quaternary vegetation and climates in the winter-rainfall fynbos biome. J. Biogeogr. 26:367-78
37. Cowling RM, Holmes PM, Rebelo AG. 1992. Plant diversity and endemism. In The Ecology of Fynbos: Nutrients, Fire and Diversity, ed. RM Cowling, pp. 62-112. Cape Town, S. Afr.: Oxford Univ. Press
38. Cowling RM, Lombard AT. 2002. Heterogeneity, speciation/extinction history and climate: Explaining regional plant diversity patterns in the Cape Floristic Region. Divers. Distrib. 8:163-79
39. Cowling RM, Macdonald IAW, Simmons MT. 1996. The Cape Peninsula, South Africa: Physiographical, biological and historical background to an extraordinary hot-spot of biodiversity. Biodivers. Conserv. 5:527-50
40. Cowling RM, Pressey RL. 2001. Rapid plant diversification: Planning for an evolutionary future. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:5452-57
41. Cowling RM, Rundel PW, Desmet PG, Esler KJ. 1998. Extraordinary high regional-scale plant diversity in southern African arid lands: Subcontinental and global comparisons. Divers. Distrib. 4:27-36
42. Coyne JA, Orr HA. 1989. Patterns of speciation in Drosophila. Evolution 43:362-81
43. Coyne JA, Orr HA. 1997. "Patterns of speciation in Drosophila" revisited. Evolution 51:295-303
44. Crane PR, Lidgard S. 1989. Angiosperm diversification and paleolatitudinal gradients in Cretaceous floristic diversity. Science 246:675-78
45. Crisp MD, Laffan S, Linder HP, Monro A. 2001. Endemism in the Australian flora. J. Biogeogr. 28:183-98
46. Cronin TM. 1985. Speciation and stasis in marine Ostracoda: Climatic modulation of evolution. Science 227:60-63
47. Cronin TM. 1987. Speciation and cyclic climatic change. In Climate: History, Periodicity and Predictability, ed. MR Rampino, JE Sanders, WS Newman, LL Königsson, pp. 333-42. New York: Van Nostrand-Reinholdt
48. Cronin TM, Raymo ME, Kyle KP. 1996. Pliocene (3.2-2.4 Ma) ostracode faunal cycles and deep ocean circulation, North Atlantic Ocean. Geology 24:695-98
49. Cronk QCB. 1997. Islands: Stability, diversity, conservation. Biodivers. Conserv. 6:477-93
50. Cruzan MB, Templeton AR. 2000. Paleoecology and coalescence: Phylogeographic analysis of hypotheses from the fossil record. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15:491-96
51. Cwynar LC, MacDonald GM. 1987. Geographical variation of lodgepole pine in relation to population history. Am. Nat. 129:463-69
52. Dansgaard W, Johnsen SJ, Clausen HB, Dahl-Jensen D, Gundestrup NS, et al. 1993. Evidence for general instability of past climate from a 250-kyr ice-core record. Nature 364:218-20
53. Darlington PJ. 1943. Carabidae of mountains and islands: Data on the evolution of isolated faunas, and on atrophy of wings. Ecol. Monogr. 13:37-61
54. Davis MB. 1976. Pleistocene biogeography of temperate deciduous forests. Geosci. Man 13:13-26
55. Davis MB, Shaw RG. 2001. Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change. Science 292:673-79
56. den Boer PJ. 1970. On the significance of dispersal power for populations of carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae). Oecologia 4:1-28
57. Dodson JR. 2001. Holocene vegetation change in the mediterranean-type climate regions of Australia. Holocene 11:673-80
58. Dufresne F, Hebert PDN, 1997. Pleistocene glaciations and polyphyletic origins of polyploidy in an arctic cladoceran. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 264:201-6
59. Dynesius M, Jansson R. 2000. Evolutionary consequences of changes in species' geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch climate oscillations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:9115-20
60. Eldredge N. 1989. Macroevolutionary Dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill
61. Endler JA. 1986. Natural Selection in the Wild. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press
62. Fischer AG. 1960. Latitudinal variation in organic diversity. Evolution 14:64-81
63. Fjeldså J. 1994. Geographical patterns for relict and young species of birds in Africa and South America and implications for conservation priorities. Biodivers. Conserv. 3:207-26
64. Fjeldså J. 1995. Geographical Patterns of Neoendemic and Older Relict Species of Andean Forest Birds: The Significance of Ecologically Stable Areas. See Churchill et al. 1995, pp. 89-102
65. Fjeldså J, Ehrlich D, Lambin E, Prins E. 1997. Are biodiversity 'hotspots' correlated with current ecoclimatic stability? A pilot study using the NOAA-AVHRR remote sensing data. Biodivers. Conserv. 6:401-22
66. Fjeldså J, Lambin E, Mertens B. 1999. Correlation between endemism and local ecoclimatic stability documented by comparing Andean bird distributions and remotely sensed land surface data. Ecography 22:63-78
67. Fjeldså J, Lovett JC. 1997. Geographical patterns of old and young species in African forest biota: The significance of specific montane areas as evolutionary centres. Biodivers. Conserv. 6:325-46
68. Flenley JR. 1998. Tropical forests under the climates of the last 30,000 years. Clim. Change 39:177-97
69. Flessa KW, Jablonski D. 1996. The geography of evolutionary turnover: A global analysis of extant bivalves. In Evolutionary Paleobiology, ed. D Jablonski, DH Erwin, JH Lipps, pp. 376-97. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
70. Franzke A, Hurka H. 2000. Molecular systematics and biogeography of the Cardamine pratensis complex (Brassicaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 224:213-34
71. Futuyma DJ. 1987. On the role of species in anagenesis. Am. Nat. 130:465-73
72. Futuyma DJ, Moreno G. 1988. The evolution of ecological specialization. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19:207-33
73. García-Moreno J, Fjeldså J. 2000. Chronology and mode of speciation in the Andean avifauna. Bonn. Zool. Monogr. 46:25-46
74. García-Paris M, Good DA, Parra-Olea G, Wake DB. 2000. Biodiversity of Costa Rican salamanders: Implications of high levels of genetic differentiation and phylogeographic structure for species formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:1640-47
75. Gavrilets S, Acton R, Gravner J. 2000a. Dynamics of speciation and diversification in a metapopulation. Evolution 54:1493-501
76. Gavrilets S, Li H, Vose MD. 2000b. Patterns of parapatric speciation. Evolution 54:1126-34
77. Glazier DS. 1987. Toward a predictive theory of speciation: The ecology of isolate selection. J. Theor. Biol. 126:323-34
78. Goldblatt P. 1978. An analysis of the flora of Southern Africa: Its characteristics, relationships, and origins. Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard. 65:369-436
79. Goldblatt P. 1997. Floristic diversity in the Cape Flora of South Africa. Biodivers. Conserv. 6:359-77
80. Graham RW, Lundelius EL, Graham MA, Schroeder EK, Toomey RS, et al. 1996. Spatial response of mammals to late quaternary environmental fluctuations. Science 272:1601-6
81. Grytnes JA, Birks HJB, Peglar SM. 1999. Plant species richness in Fennoscandia: Evaluating the relative importance of climate and history. Nord. J. Bot. 19:489-503
82. Haffer J. 1969. Speciation in Amazonian forest birds. Science 165:131-37
83. Haffer J. 1997. Alternative models of vertebrate speciation in Amazonia: An overview. Biodivers. Conserv. 6:451-76
84. Harrison S, Hastings A. 1996. Genetic and evolutionary consequences of metapopulation structure. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11:180-83
85. Hays JD, Imbrie J, Shackleton NJ. 1976. Variations in the Earth's orbit: Pacemaker of the ice ages. Science 194:1121-32
86. Hellberg ME, Balch DP, Roy K. 2001. Climate-driven range expansion and morphological evolution in a marine gastropod. Science 292:1707-10
87. Hendry AP, Wenburg JK, Bentzen P, Volk EC, Quinn TP. 2000. Rapid evolution of reproductive isolation in the wild: Evidence from introduced salmon. Science 290:516-18
88. Hewitt GM. 1975. A sex chromosome hybrid zone in the grasshopper Podisma pedestris. Heredity 35:375-87
89. Hewitt GM. 1996. Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 58:247-76
90. Hewitt GM. 1999. Post-glacial re-colonization of European biota. Biol, J. Linn. Soc. 68:87-112
91. Hewitt GM. 2000. The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages. Nature 405:907-13
92. Hewitt GM. 2001. Speciation, hybrid zones and phylogeography: Or seeing genes in space and time. Mol. Ecol. 10:537-49
93. Higgie M, Chenoweth S, Blows MW. 2000. Natural selection and the reinforcement of mate recognition. Science 290:519-21
94. Hill JK, Thomas CD, Blakeley DS. 1999. Evolution of flight morphology in a butterfly that has recently expanded its geographic range. Oecologia 121:165-70
95. Hillebrand H, Azovsky AI. 2001. Body size determines the strength of the latitudinal diversity gradient. Ecography 24:251-56
96. Hodgson JG. 1987. Why do so few plant species exploit productive habitats? An investigation into cytology, plant strategies and abundance within a local flora. Funct. Ecol. 1:243-50
97. Hooghiemstra H, Sarmiento G. 1991. Long continental pollen record from a tropical intermontane basin: Late Pliocene and Pleistocene history from a 540-meter core. Episodes 14:107-15
98. Howard DJ, Berlocher SH, eds. 1998. Endless Forms: Species and Speciation. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
99. Huntley B, Birks HJB. 1983. An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe: 0-13, 000 Years Ago. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
100. Hutchinson GE. 1959. Homage to Santa Rosalia, or why are there so many kinds of animals? Am. Nat. 93:145-59
101. Imbrie J, Berger A, Boyle EA, Clemens SC, Duffy A, et al. 1993a. On the structure and origin of major glaciation cycles. 2. The 100,000-year cycle. Paleoceanography 8:699-735
102. Imbrie J, Berger A, Shackleton NJ. 1993b. Role of orbital forcing: A two-million-year perspective. In Global Changes in the Perspective of the Past, ed. JA Eddy, H Oeschger, pp. 263-77. Chichester, UK: Wiley
103. Imbrie J, McIntyre A, Mix A. 1989. Oceanic response to orbital forcing in the late Quaternary: Observational and experimental strategies. In Climate and Geo-Sciences, ed. A Berger, A Schneider, JC Duplessy, pp. 121-64. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
104. Jablonski D. 1985. Marine regressions and mass extinctions: A test using the modern biota. In Phanerozoic Diversity Patterns: Profiles in Macroevolution, ed. JW Valentine, pp. 335-53. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
105. Jablonski D. 1986. Larval ecology and macroevolution in marine invertebrates. Bull. Mar. Sci. 39:565-87
106. Jablonski D. 1993. The tropics as a source of evolutionary novelty through geological time. Nature 364:142-44
107. Jackson ST, Overpeck JT. 2000. Responses of plant populations and communities to environmental changes of the late Quaternary. Paleobiology 26:194-220
108. Johnson SD. 1996. Pollination, adaptation and speciation models in the Cape flora of South Africa. Taxon 45:59-66
109. Johnson SD, Steiner KE. 2000. Generalization versus specialization in plant pollination systems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15:140-43
110. Kashiwaya K, Ochiai S, Sakai H, Kawai T. 2001. Orbit-related long-term climate cycles revealed in a 12-Myr continental record from Lake Baikal. Nature 410:71-74
111. Kauffman EG. 1978. Evolutionary rates and patterns among Cretaceous Bivalvia. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 284:277-304
112. Kawata M. 2002. Invasion of vacant niches and subsequent sympatric speciation. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 269:55-63
113. Knowles LL. 2000. Tests of Pleistocene speciation in montane grasshoppers (genus Melanoplus) from the sky islands of western North America. Evolution 54:1337-48
114. Knowles LL. 2001. Did the Pleistocene glaciations promote divergence? Tests of explicit refugial models in montane grasshoppers. Mol. Ecol. 10:691-701
115. Konnert M, Bergmann F. 1995. The geographical distribution of genetic variation of silver fir (Abies alba, Pinaceae) in relation to its migration history. Plant Syst. Evol. 196:19-30
116. Kukla GJ. 2000. Paleoclimate: The last interglacial. Science 287:987-88
117. Kuta E, Przywara L. 1997. Polyploidy in mosses. Acta Biol. Cracov. Bot. 39:17-26
118. Lande R. 1992. Neutral theory of quantitative genetic variance in an island model with local extinction and colonization. Evolution 46:381-89
119. Latham RE, Ricklefs RE. 1993. Continental comparisons of temperate-zone tree species diversity. In Species Diversity in Ecological Communities, ed. RE Ricklefs, D Schluter, pp. 294-314. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
120. Lawrey JD. 1980. Sexual and asexual reproductive patterns in Parmotrema (Parmeliaceae) that correlate with latitude. Bryologist 83:344-50
121. Lawton JH. 1994. Population dynamic principles. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 344:61-68
122. Lawton JH, May RM, eds. 1995. Extinction Rates. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
123. Lessios HA. 1998. The First Stage of Speciation as Seen in Organisms Separated by the Isthmus of Panama. See Howard & Berlocher 1998, pp. 186-201
124. Linder HP. 2001. Plant diversity and endemism in sub-Saharan tropical Africa. J. Biogeogr. 28:169-82
125. Lord J, Egan J, Clifford T, Jurado E, Leishman M, et al. 1997. Larger seeds in tropical floras: Consistent patterns independent of growth form and dispersal mode. J. Biogeogr. 24:205-11
126. Marshall LG, Webb SD, Sepkoski JJ, Raup DM. 1982. Mammalian evolution and the Great American Interchange. Science 215:1351-57
127. Martens K, Schön I. 1999. Crustacean biodiversity in ancient lakes: A review. Crustaceana 72:899-910
128. Mashiko K. 2000. Insights into the mechanism of speciation in gammarid crustaceans of Lake Baikal using a population-genetic approach. Adv. Ecol. Res. 31:221-35
129. Mayr E. 1963. Animal Species and Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
130. McCune AR. 1987. Lakes as laboratories for evolution: Endemic fishes and environmental cyclicity. Palaios 2:446-54
131. McCune AR, Lovejoy NR. 1998. The Relative Rate of Sympatric and Allopatric Speciation in Fishes. See Howard & Berlocher 1998, pp. 172-85
132. McGlone MS. 1996. When history matters: Scale, time, climate and tree diversity. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 5:309-14
133. McGlone MS, Duncan RP, Heenan PB. 2001. Endemism, species selection and the origin and distribution of the vascular plant flora of New Zealand. J. Biogeogr. 28:199-216
134. McKinney ML. 1997. Extinction vulnerability and selectivity: Combining ecological and paleontological views. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 28:495-516
135. Meadows ME, Sugden JM. 1993. The late Quaternary palaecology of a floristic kingdom: The southwestern Cape South Africa. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 101:271-81
136. Moritz C, Patton JL, Schneider CJ, Smith TB. 2000. Diversification of rainforest faunas: An integrated molecular approach. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 31:533-63
137. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853-58
138. Mönkkönen M, Welsh DA. 1994. A biogeographical hypothesis of human-caused landscape changes on the forest bird communities of Europe and North America. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 31:61-70
139. Niemelä J, Spence JR. 1991. Distribution and abundance of an exotic ground beetle (Carabidae): A test of community impact. Oikos 62:351-59
140. Niemelä J, Spence JR. 1999. Dynamics of local expansion by an introduced species: Pterostichus melanarius III. (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in Alberta, Canada. Diversity Distrib. 5:121-27
141. Nilsson AN, Pettersson RB, Lemdahl G. 1993. Macroptery in altitudinal specialists versus brachyptery in generalists: A paradox of alpine Scandinavian carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae). J. Biogeogr. 20:227-34
142. Nilsson T, Jorde PE. 1998. Allozyme variation in allotetraploid Saxifraga osloënsis and its diploid progenitors. Nord. J. Bot. 18:425-30
143. Olsen PE. 1986. A 40-million-year lake record of early Mesozoic orbital climatic forcing. Science 234:842-48
144. Otte D. 1989. Speciation in Hawaiian crickets. In Speciation and Its Consequences, ed. D Otte, JA Endler, pp. 482-526. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
145. Otto SP, Whitton J. 2000. Polyploid incidence and evolution. Annu. Rev. Genet. 34:401-37
146. Pagel MD, May RM, Collie AR. 1991. Ecological aspects of the geographical distribution and diversity of mammalian species. Am. Nat. 137:791-815
147. Paulo OS, Dias C, Bruford MW, Jordan WC, Nichols RA. 2001. The persistence of Pliocene populations through the Pleistocene climatic cycles: Evidence from the phylogeography of an Iberian lizard. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 268:1625-30
148. Picker MD, Samways MJ. 1996. Faunal diversity and endemicity of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa: A first assessment. Biodivers. Conserv. 5:591-606
149. Potts EC. 1983. Evolutionary disequilibrium among Indo-Pacific corals. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33:619-32
150. Pounds JA, Fogden MPL, Campbell JH. 1999. Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature 398:611-15
151. Potts EC. 1983. Evolutionary disequilibrium among Indo-Pacific corals. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33:619-32
152. Quillévéré F, Norris RD, Moussa I, Berggren WA. 2001. Role of photosymbiosis and biogeography in the diversification of early Paleogene acarininids (planktonic foraminifera). Paleobiology 27:311-26
153. Rahbek C, Graves GR. 2001. Multiscale assessment of patterns of avian species richness. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:4534-39
154. Ramsey J, Schemske DW. 1998. Pathways, mechanisms, and rates of polyploid formation in flowering plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 29:467-501
155. Rebelo AG. 1992. Red Data Book species in the Cape Floristic Region: Threats, priorities and target species. Trans. R. Soc. S. Afr. 48:55-86
156. Remington CL. 1968. Suture-zones of hybrid interaction between recently joined biotas. Evol. Biol. 2:321-428
157. Richardson JE, Weitz FM, Fay MF, Cronk QCB, Linder HP, et al. 2001. Rapid and recent origin of species richness in the Cape flora of South Africa. Nature 412:181-83
158. Rosenzweig ML. 1995. Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
159. Roy K, Valentine JW, Jablonski D, Kidwell SM. 1996. Scales of climatic variability and time averaging in Pleistocene biotas: Implications for ecology and evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11:458-63
160. Rune O. 1953. Plant life on serpentine and related rocks in the north of Sweden. Acta Phytogeogr. Suecica 31:1-139
161. Ryvarden L. 1993. Tropical polypores. In Aspects of Tropical Mycology, ed. S Isaac, pp. 149-70. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
162. Schluter D. 1996. Ecological speciation in postglacial fishes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 351:807-14
163. Schluter D. 2000. The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press
164. Schofield WB. 1992. Bryophyte distribution patterns. In Bryophytes and Lichens in a Changing Environment, ed. JW Bates, AM Farmer, pp. 103-30. Oxford: Clarendon
165. Sheldon PR. 1996. Plus ça change: A model for stasis and evolution in different environments. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 127:209-27
166. Sherbakov DY. 1999. Molecular phylogenetic studies on the origin of biodiversity in Lake Baikal. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14:92-95
167. Sideleva VG. 2000. The ichthyofauna of Lake Baikal, with special reference to its zoogeographical relations. Adv. Ecol. Res. 31:81-96
168. Skellam JG. 1951. Random dispersal in theoretical populations. Biometrika 38:196-218
169. Slatkin M. 1977. Gene flow and genetic drift in a species subject to frequent local extinction. Theor. Popul. Biol. 12:253-62
170. Smith F. 2001. Historical regulation of local species richness across a geographic region. Ecology 82:792-801
171. Sømme L. 1989. Adaptations of terrestrial arthropods to the alpine environment. Biol. Rev. 64:367-407
172. Spicer RA, Wolfe JA, Nichols DJ. 1987. Alaskan Cretaceous-Tertiary floras and arctic origins. Paleobiology 13:73-83
173. Stanley SM. 1979. Macroevolution. San Francisco: Freeman
174. Stanley SM. 1986. Population size, extinction, and speciation: The fission effect in Neogene Bivalvia. Paleobiology 12:89-110
175. Stebbins GL. 1971. Chromosomal Evolution in Higher Plants. London: Arnold
176. Stebbins GL. 1984. Polyploidy and the distribution of the arctic-alpine flora: New evidence and a new approach. Bot. Helv. 94:1-14
177. Stevens GC. 1989. The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: How so many species coexist in the tropics. Am. Nat. 133:240-56
178. Taylor EB. 1999. Species pairs of north temperate freshwater fishes: Evolution, taxonomy, and conservation. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish. 9:299-324
179. Terborgh J. 1992. Diversity and the Tropical Rain Forest. New York: Sci. Am. Libr.
180. Thomas CD, Bodsworth EJ, Wilson RJ, Simmons AD, Davies ZG, et al. 2001. Ecological and evolutionary processes at expanding range margins. Nature 411:577-81
181. Valentine JW. 1984. Neogene marine climate trends: Implications for biogeography and evolution of the shallow-sea biota. Geology 12:647-59
182. van der Hammen T. 1995. Global Change, Biodiversity, and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. See Churchill et al. 1995, pp. 603-7
183. van Zanten BO, Pócs T. 1981. Distribution and dispersal of bryophytes. In Advances in Bryology, ed. W Schultze-Motel. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: Cramer
184. Vogel JC, Rumsey FJ, Schneller JJ, Barrett JA, Gibby M. 1999. Where are the glacial refugia in Europe? Evidence from pteridophytes. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 66:23-37
185. Vrba ES. 1989. Ecology in relation to speciation rates: Some case histories of Miocene-Recent mammal clades. Evol. Ecol. 1:283-300
186. Vrba ES. 1985. Ecology and environment: Alternative causes of the temporal distribution of evolutionary events. South Afr. J. Sci. 81:229-36
187. Vrba ES. 1992. Mammals as a key to evolutionary theory. J. Mammal. 73:1-28
188. Vrba ES. 1993. Turnover-pulses, the red queen, and related topics. Am. J. Sci. 293A:418-52
189. Walther GR, Post E, Convey P, Menzel A, Parmesan C, et al. 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 416:389-95
190. Ward RD, Bickerton MA, Finston T, Hebert PDN. 1994. Geographical cline in breeding systems and ploidy levels in European populations of Daphnia pulex. Heredity 73:532-43
191. Warren MS, Hill JK, Thomas JA, Asher J, Fox R, et al. 2001. Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change. Nature 414:65-69
192. Webb SD. 1991. Ecogeography and the Great American Interchange. Paleobiology 17:266-80
193. Webb T, Bartlein PJ. 1992. Global changes during the last 3 million years: Climatic controls and biotic responses. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23:141-73
194. Whittaker RH. 1954. The ecology of serpentine soils. IV. The vegetational response to serpentine soils. Ecology 35:275-88
195. Williams GC. 1992. Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
196. Williamson PG. 1981. Palaeontological documentation of speciation in Cenozoic molluscs from Turkana Basin. Nature 293:437-43
197. Wisheu IC, Rosenzweig ML, Olsvig-Whittaker L, Shmida A. 2000. What makes nutrient-poor mediterranean heathlands so rich in plant diversity? Evol. Ecol. Res. 2:935-55
198. Wright DH. 1983. Species-energy theory: An extension of species-area theory. Oikos 41:496-506
199. Wright HE Jr, Kutzbach JE, Webb T III, Ruddiman WF, Street-Perrott FA, Bartlein PJ. 1993. Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum. Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
200. Zachos J, Pagani M, Sloan L, Thomas E, Billups K. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292:686-93
201. Zachos JC, Flower BP, Paul H. 1997. Orbitally paced climate oscillations across the Oligocene/Miocene boundary. Nature 388:567-70