Measurement of subclinical atherosclerosis: Beyond risk factor assessment

Current Opinion in Lipidology

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 595-603

  Bisoendial, Radjesh J ^a   Kees Hovingh, G ^a   De Groot, Eric ^a   Kastelein, John J P ^a,b   Lansberg, Peter J ^a   Stroes, Erik S G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Prevention; Risk factor management; Subclinical atherosclerosis; Surrogate end points

Indexed keywords

ANGIOCARDIOGRAPHY; ARTERY CALCIFICATION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; BLOOD FLOW; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAROTID ARTERY; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CORONARY ARTERY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; ECHOGRAPHY; ELECTRON BEAM TOMOGRAPHY; HUMAN; INTIMA; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

BLOOD FLOW VELOCITY; CLINICAL TRIALS; CORONARY ANGIOGRAPHY; CORONARY ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; CORONARY CIRCULATION; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; RISK FACTORS; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; TUNICA INTIMA;

EID: 0036909540     PISSN: 09579672     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00041433-200212000-00002     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Bonneux L, Looman CW, Barendregt JJ, Van der Maas PJ. Regression analysis of recent changes in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in The Netherlands. BMJ 1997; 314:789-792.
2. Murray CJ, Lopez AD. Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 1997; 349:1498-1504.
3. Libby P. What have we learned about the biology of atherosclerosis? The role of inflammation. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88:3J-6J.
4. Mach F, Schonbeck U, Libby P. CD40 signaling in vascular cells: A key role in atherosclerosis? Atherosclerosis 1998; 137 (Suppl):S89-S95.
5. Schonbeck U, Mach F, Sukhova GK, et al. Regulation of matrix metalloproteinase expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells by T lymphocytes: A role for CD40 signaling in plaque rupture? Circ Res 1997; 81:448-454.
6. Goetze S, Eilers F, Bungenstock A, et al. PPAR activators inhibit endothelial cell migration by targeting Akt. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 293:1431-1437.
7. Ishibashi T, Nagata K, Ohkawara H, et al. Inhibition of Rho/Rho-kinase signaling downregulates plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 synthesis in cultured human monocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002; 1590:123-130.
8. Daugherty A, Rated DL. T lymphocytes in atherosclerosis: The yin-yang of Th1 and Th2 influence on lesion formation. Circ Res 2002; 90:1039-1040.
9. Joseph SB, McKilligin E, Pei L, et al. Synthetic LXR ligand inhibits the development of atherosclerosis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:7604-7609.
10. Verma S, Li SH, Badiwala MV, et al. Endothelin antagonism and interleukin-6 inhibition attenuate the proatherogenic effects of C-reactive protein. Circulation 2002; 105:1890-1896.
11. Davidson IW, Beliles RP. Consideration of the target organ toxicity of trichloroethylene in terms of metabolite toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Drug Metab Rev 1991; 23:493-599.
12. Davidson MH. Introduction: Utilization of surrogate markers of atherosclerosis for the clinical development of pharmaceutical agents. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87:1A-7A.
13. Braunwald E: Shattuck lecture: Cardiovascular medicine at the turn of the millennium: Triumphs, concerns, and opportunities. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1360-1369.
14. Kuvin JT, Patel AR, Sliney KA, et al. Peripheral vascular endothelial function testing as a noninvasive indicator of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38:1843-1849. This study evaluated whether ultrasound assessment of brachial artery FMD could predict the presence or absence of CAD, as defined by exercise myocardial perfusion imaging. Using FMD below 10% as the cut-off value, a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 54% were calculated for predicting a positive exercise myocardial perfusion imaging test.
15. Barth JD. Which tools are in your cardiac workshop? Carotid ultrasound, endothelial function, and magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87:8-14.
16. Fathi R, Marwick TH. Noninvasive tests of vascular function and structure: Why and how to perform them. Am Heart J 2001; 141:694-703.
17. Doshi SN, Naka KK, Payne N, et al. Flow-mediated dilatation following wrist and upper arm occlusion in humans: The contribution of nitric oxide. Clin Sci (Lond) 2001; 101:629-635.
18. Mullen MJ, Kharbanda RK, Cross J, et al. Heterogenous nature of flow-mediated dilatation in human conduit arteries in vivo: Relevance to endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia. Circ Res 2001; 88:145-151.
19. Joannides R, Haefeli WE, Linder L, et al. Nitric oxide is responsible for flow-dependent dilatation of human peripheral conduit arteries in vivo. Circulation 1995; 91:1314-1319.
20. Doshi SN, Naka KK, Payne N, et al. Flow-mediated dilatation following wrist and upper arm occlusion in humans: The contribution of nitric oxide. Clin Sci (Lond) 2001; 101:629-635.
21. Hijmering ML, Stroes ES, Pasterkamp G, et al. Variability of flow mediated dilation: Consequences for clinical application. Atherosclerosis 2001; 157:369-373.
22. Corretti MC, Anderson TJ, Benjamin EJ, et al. Guidelines for the ultrasound assessment of endothelial-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery: A report of the International Brachial Artery Reactivity Task Force. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39:257-265. This is an up-to-date report that provides guidelines for FMD measurement and its research application to evaluate vasomotor function. It addresses the promises and limitations of this widely used method, and future directions are discussed.
23. Vogel RA. Measurement of endothelial function by brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88:31E-34E.
24. Brands PJ, Hoeks AP, Willigers J, et al. An integrated system for the non-invasive assessment of vessel wall and hemodynamic properties of large arteries by means of ultrasound. Eur J Ultrasound 1999; 9:257-266.
25. Hoeks AP, Willekes C, Boutouyrie P, et al. Automated detection of local artery wall thickness based on M-line signal processing. Ultrasound Med Biol 1997; 23:1017-1023.
26. Woodman RJ, Playford DA, Watts GF, et al. Improved analysis of brachial artery ultrasound using a novel edge-detection software system. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91:929-937.
27. Sorensen KE, Celermajer DS, Spiegelhalter DJ, et al. Non-invasive measurement of human endothelium dependent arterial responses: Accuracy and reproducibility. Br Heart J 1995; 74:247-253.
28. de Kleijn MJ, Wilmink HW, Bots ML, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and endothelial function. Results of a randomized controlled trial in healthy postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis 2001; 159:357-365.
29. Wilmink HW, Twickler MB, Banga JD, et al. Effect of statin versus fibrate on postprandial endothelial dysfunction: Role of remnant-like particles. Cardio-vasc Res 2001; 50:577-582.
30. Wilmink HW, Stroes ES, Erkelens WD, et al. Influence of folic acid on postprandial endothelial dysfunction. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20:185-188.
31. Rooyakkers TM, Stroes ES, Kooistra MP, et al. Ferric saccharate induces oxygen radical stress and endothelial dysfunction in vivo. Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32 (Suppl 1):9-16.
32. Woodman RJ, Playford DA, Watts GF, et al. Improved analysis of brachial artery ultrasound using a novel edge-detection software system. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91:929-937.
33. Kimura Y, Matsumoto M, Den YB, et al. Impaired endothelial function in hypertensive elderly patients evaluated by high resolution ultrasonography. Can J Cardiol 1999; 15:563-568.
34. Park JB, Charbonneau F, Schiffrin EL. Correlation of endothelial function in large and small arteries in human essential hypertension. J Hypertens 2001; 19:415-420.
35. Alonso R, Mata P, De Andres R, et al. Sustained long-term improvement of arterial endothelial function in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia patients treated with simvastatin. Atherosclerosis 2001; 157:423-429.
36. Vogel RA. Cholesterol lowering and endothelial function. Am J Med 1999; 107:479-487.
37. Kimura Y, Matsumoto M, Miyauchi E, et al. Noninvasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in elderly with NIDDM by ultrasonography. Echocardiography 2001; 18:559-564.
38. van Etten RW, de Koning EJ, Honing ML, et al. Intensive lipid lowering by statin therapy does not improve vasoreactivity in patients with type 2 diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:799-804.
39. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Georgakopoulos D, et al. Cigarette smoking is associated with dose-related and potentially reversible impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation in healthy young adults. Circulation 1993; 88:2149-2165.
40. Ashfield-Watt PA, Moat SJ, Doshi SN, McDowell IF. Folate, homocysteine, endothelial function and cardiovascular disease. What is the link? Biomed Pharmacother 2001; 55:425-433.
41. Stanger O, Weger M, Renner W, Konetschny R. Vascular dysfunction in hyperhomocyst(e)inemia. Implications for atherothrombotic disease. Clin Chem Lab Med 2001; 39:725-733.
42. de Jongh S, Lilien MR, Bakker HD, et al. Family history of cardiovascular events and endothelial dysfunction in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 2002; 163:193-197.
43. Clarkson P, Celermajer DS, Powe AJ, et al. Endothelium-dependent dilatation is impaired in young healthy subjects with a family history of premature coronary disease. Circulation 1997; 96:3378-3383.
44. Schroeder S, Enderle MD, Ossen R, et al. Noninvasive determination of endothelium-mediated vasodilation as a screening test for coronary artery disease: Pilot study to assess the predictive value in comparison with angina pectoris, exercise electrocardiography, and myocardial perfusion imaging. Am Heart J 1999; 138:731-739.
45. Teragawa H, Kato M, Kurokawa J, et al. Usefulness of flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery and/or the intima-media thickness of the carotid artery in predicting coronary narrowing in patients suspected of having coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88:1147-1151.
46. Suwaidi JA, Hamasaki S, Higano ST, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation 2000; 101:948-954.
47. Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 2000; 101:1899-1906.
48. Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD, et al. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:1235-1241.
49. Anderson TJ, Gerhard MD, Meredith IT, et al. Systemic nature of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75:71B-74B.
50. Takase B, Uehata A, Akima T, et al. Endothelium-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation in coronary and brachial arteries in suspected coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82:1535-1538.
51. Neunteufl T, Heher S, Katzenschlager R, et al. Late prognostic value of flow-mediated dilation in the brachial artery of patients with chest pain. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86:207-210.
52. Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Hunter LM, et al. Risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events via noninvasive assessment of endothelial function: A prospective study. Circulation 2002; 105:1567-1572. This well designed, prospective study evaluated the predictive value of ultrasound assessment of brachial artery FMD for future (short-term) cardiovascular events in 187 patients undergoing vascular surgery. An impaired brachial artery endothelial function was found to predict postoperative cardiovascular events independently. This finding and the strong negative predictive value of preserved endothelial function endorse the application of FMD measurement in risk stratification for postoperative cardiovascular events.
53. Herrington DM, Fan L, Drum M, et al. Brachial flow-mediated vasodilator responses in population-based research: Methods, reproducibility and effects of age, gender and baseline diameter. J Cardiovasc Risk 2001; 8:319-328.
54. Wong M, Edelstein J, Wollman J, Bond MG. Ultrasonic-pathological comparison of the human arterial wall. Verification of intima-media thickness. Arterioscler Thromb 1993; 13:482-486.
55. Smilde TJ, van den Berkmortel FW, Wollersheim H, et al. The effect ofcholesterol lowering on carotid and femoral artery wall stiffness and thickness in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia. Eur J Clin Invest 2000; 30:473-480.
56. Pignoli P, Tremoli E, Poll A, et al. Intimal plus medial thickness of the arterial wall: A direct measurement with ultrasound imaging. Circulation 1986; 74:1399-1406.
57. Spence JD. Ultrasound measurement of carotid plaque as a surrogate outcome for coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89:10B-15B.
58. Howard G, Burke GL, Evans GW, et al. Relations of intimal-medial thickness among sites within the carotid artery as evaluated by B-mode ultrasound. ARIC Investigators. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities. Stroke 1994; 25:1581-1587.
59. Tang R, Hennig M, Thomasson B, et al. Baseline reproducibility of B-mode ultrasonic measurement of carotid artery intima-media thickness: The European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA). J Hypertens 2000; 18:197-201.
60. Graf S, Gariepy J, Massonneau M, et al. Experimental and clinical validation of arterial diameter waveform and intimal media thickness obtained from B-mode ultrasound image processing. Ultrasound Med Biol 1999; 25:1353-1363.
61. Salonen JT, Salonen R. Ultrasound B-mode imaging in observational studies of atherosclerotic progression. Circulation 1993; 87:1156-1165.
62. Simon A, Gariepy J, Chironi G, et al. Intima-media thickness: A new tool for diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens 2002; 20:159-169. This is a complete review of IMT measurement as a current vascular tool in prospective primary and secondary prevention studies, describing its methodology, its relationship with established cardiovascular risk factors and clinical events, and its role within monitoring of efficacy of novel therapeutic agents.
63. Baldassarre D, Werba JP, Tremoli E, et al. Common carotid intima-media thickness measurement. A method to improve accuracy and precision. Stroke 1994; 25:1588-1592.
64. Poli A, Tremoli E, Colombo A, et al. Ultrasonographic measurement of the common carotid artery wall thickness in hypercholesterolemic patients. A new model for the quantitation and follow-up of preclinical atherosclerosis in living human subjects. Atherosclerosis 1988; 70:253-261.
65. Lakka TA, Salonen R, Kaplan GA, Salonen JT. Blood pressure and the progression of carotid atherosclerosis in middle-aged men. Hypertension 1999; 34:51-56.
66. Keulen ET, Kruijshoop M, Schaper NC, et al. Increased intima-media thickness in familial combined hyperlipidemia associated with apolipoprotein B. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:283-288.
67. Gaeta G, De Michele M, Cuomo S, et al. Arterial abnormalities in the offspring of patients with premature myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2000; 343:840-846.
68. Baldassarre D, Amato M, Pustina L, et al. Increased carotid artery intima-media thickness in subjects with primary hypoalphalipoproteinemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:317-322.
69. Jarvisalo MJ, Putto-Laurila A, Jartti L, et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness in children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2002; 51:493-498.
70. Mykkanen L, Zaccaro DJ, O'Leary DH, et al. Microalbuminuria and carotid artery intima-media thickness in nondiabetic and NIDDM subjects. The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Stroke 1997; 28:1710-1716.
71. Hanefeld M, Koehler C, Schaper F, et al. Postprandial plasma glucose is an independent risk factor for increased carotid intima-media thickness in non-diabetic individuals. Atherosclerosis 1999; 144:229-235.
72. Zanchetti A, Crepaldi G, Bond MG, et al. Systolic and pulse blood pressures (but not diastolic blood pressure and serum cholesterol) are associated with alterations in carotid intima-media thickness in the moderately hypercholesterolaemic hypertensive patients of the Plaque Hypertension Lipid Lowering Italian Study. PHYLLIS study group. J Hypertens 2001; 19:79-88.
73. Gamero L, Levenson J, Armentano R, et al. Carotid wall inertial index increase is related to intima-media thickening in hypertensive patients. J Hypertens 1999; 17:1825-1829.
74. Persson J, Formgren J, Israelsson B, Berglund G. Ultrasound-determined intima-media thickness and atherosclerosis. Direct and indirect validation. Arterioscler Thromb 1994; 14:261-264.
75. Bolinder G, Noren A, de Faire U, Wahren J. Smokeless tobacco use and atherosclerosis: An ultrasonographic investigation of carotid intima media thickness in healthy middle-aged men. Atherosclerosis 1997; 132:95-103.
76. Crouse JR III, Craven TE, Hagaman AP, Bond MG. Association of coronary disease with segment-specific intimal-medial thickening of the extracranial carotid artery. Circulation 1995; 92:1141-1147.
77. Linhart A, Gariepy J, Giral P, et al. Carotid artery and left ventricular structural relationship in asymptomatic men at risk for cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 1996; 127:103-112.
78. Cuspidi C, Lonati L, Macca G, et al. Prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy and carotid thickening in a large selected hypertensive population: Impact of different echocardiographic and ultrasonographic diagnostic criteria. Blood Press 2001; 10:142-149.
79. Cuspidi C, Lonati L, Sampieri L, et al. Similarities and differences in structural and functional changes of left ventricle and carotid arteries in young borderline hypertensives and in athletes. J Hypertens 1996; 14:759-764.
80. Salonen R, Salonen JT. Determinants of carotid intima-media thickness: A population-based ultrasonography study in eastern Finnish men. J Intern Med 1991; 229:225-231.
81. Chambless LE, Heiss G, Folsom AR, et al. Association of coronary heart disease incidence with carotid arterial wall thickness and major risk factors: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, 1987-1993. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 146:483-494.
82. O'Leary DH, Polak JF, Kronmal RA, et al. Carotid-artery intima and media thickness as a risk factor for myocardial infarction and stroke in older adults. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:14-22.
83. Bots ML, Hoes AW, Koudstaal PJ, et al. Common carotid intima-media thickness and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: The Rotterdam Study. Circulation 1997; 96:1432-1437.
84. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, et al. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128:262-269.
85. Furberg CD, Adams Jr HP, Applegate WB, et al. Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events. Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Progression Study (ACAPS) Research Group. Circulation 1994; 90:1679-1687.
86. Salonen R, Nyyssonen K, Porkkala E, et al. Kuopio Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (KAPS). A population-based primary preventive trial of the effect of LDL lowering on atherosclerotic progression in carotid and femoral arteries. Circulation 1995; 92:1758-1764.
87. MacMahon S, Sharpe N, Gamble G, et al. Effects of lowering average of below-average cholesterol levels on the progression of carotid atherosclerosis: Results of the LIPID Atherosclerosis Substudy. LIPID Trial Research Group. Circulation 1998; 97:1784-1790.
88. de Groot E, Jukema JW, Montauban van Swijndregt AD, et al. B-mode ultrasound assessment of pravastatin treatment effect on carotid and femoral artery walls and its correlations with coronary arteriographic findings: A report of the Regression Growth Evaluation Statin Study (REGRESS). J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:1561-1567.
89. Mercuri M, Bond MG, Sirtori CR, et al. Pravastatin reduces carotid intima-media thickness progression in an asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic Mediterranean population: The Carotid Atherosclerosis Italian Ultrasound Study. Am J Med 1996; 101:627-634.
90. Smilde TJ, van Wissen S, Wollersheim H, et al. Effect of aggressive versus conventional lipid lowering on atherosclerosis progression in familial hypercholesterolaemia (ASAP): A prospective, randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet 2001; 357:577-581. In this prospective, randomized, double-blind trial, it was found that aggressive lipid management resulted in a regression of carotid IMT in persons with familial hypercholesterolaemia.
91. Pitt B, Byington RP, Furberg CD, et al. Effect of amlodipine on the progression of atherosclerosis and the occurrence of clinical events. PREVENT Investigators. Circulation 2000; 102:1503-1510.
92. Lonn E. Modifying the natural history of atherosclerosis: The SECURE trial. Int J Clin Pract Suppl 2001; 117:13-18.
93. Simon A, Gariepy J, Moyse D, Levenson J. Differential effects of nifedipine and co-amilozide on the progression of early carotid wall changes. Circulation 2001; 103:2949-2954.
94. Agatston AS, Janowitz WR, Hildner F J, et al. Quantification of coronary artery calcium using ultrafast computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990; 15;827-832.
95. Yoon HC, Greaser LE III, Mather R, et al. Coronary artery calcium: Alternate methods for accurate and reproducible quantitation. Acad Radiol 1997; 4:666-673.
96. Lu B, Mac SS, Zhuang N, et al. Coronary artery motion during the cardiac cycle and optimal ECG triggering for coronary artery imaging. Invest Radiol 2001; 36:250-256.
97. Nallamothu BK, Saint S, Bielak LF, et al. Electron-beam computed tomography in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease: A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161:833-838.
98. Haberl R, Knez A, Becker A, et al. Significance of calcium detection with electron-beam tomography in coronary disease [in German]. Radiologe 1998; 38:999-1005.
99. Rumberger JA, Sheedy PF III, Breen JF, Schwartz RS. Coronary calcium, as determined by electron beam computed tomography, and coronary disease on arteriogram. Effect of patient's sex on diagnosis. Circulation 1995; 91:1363-1367.
100. Sangiorgi G, Rumberger JA, Severson A, et al. Arterial calcification and not lumen stenosis is highly correlated with atherosclerotic plaque burden in humans: A histologic study of 723 coronary artery segments using nondecalcifying methodology. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:126-133.
101. Guerci AD, Spadaro LA, Goodman KJ, et al. Comparison of electron beam computed tomography scanning and conventional risk factor assessment for the prediction of angiographic coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32:673-679.
102. Schmermund A, Rensing BJ, Sheedy PF, et al. Intravenous electron-beam computed tomographic coronary angiography for segmental analysis of coronary artery stenoses. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:1547-1554.
103. Valabhji J, Elkeles RS. Non-invasive measurement of coronary heart disease using electron beam computed tomography. Curr Opin Lipidol 2002; 13:409-414.
104. Newman AB, Naydeck B, Sutton-Tyrrell K, et al. Coronary artery calcification in older adults with minimal clinical or subclinical cardiovascular disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48:256-263.
105. Hoffmann U, Dirisamer A, Heher S, et al. Relation of peripheral flow-mediated vasodilatation and coronary arterial calcium in young patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90:70-73.
106. Arad Y, Newstein D, Cadet F, et al. Association of multiple risk factors and insulin resistance with increased prevalence of asymptomatic coronary artery disease by an electron-beam computed tomographic study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001; 21:2051-2058.
107. Detrano RC, Wong ND, Doherty TM, et al. Coronary calcium does not accurately predict near-term future coronary events in high-risk adults. Circulation 1999; 99:2633-2638.
108. Keelan PC, Bielak LF, Ashai K, et al. Long-term prognostic value of coronary calcification detected by electron-beam computed tomography in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Circulation 2001; 104:412-417.
109. Wayhs R, Zelinger A, Raggi P. High coronary artery calcium scores pose an extremely elevated risk for hard events. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39:225-230. In this interesting study 98 asymptomatic persons with calcium scores greater than 1000 were followed for an average of 17 months. Of these subjects, 36% (higher initial calcium scores) suffered a hard coronary event (defined as myocardial infarction or coronary death) within 28 months. It was concluded that a high calcium score portends a very high risk for hard coronary events in the short term, whereas the annualized event rate was higher than in historical control individuals (persons with severe myocardial perfusion imaging abnormalities).
110. Raggi P. Prognostic implications of absolute and relative calcium scores. Herz 2001; 26:252-259.
111. Callister TQ, Cooil B, Raya SP, et al. Coronary artery disease: Improved reproducibility of calcium scoring with an electron-beam CT volumetric method. Radiology 1998; 208:807-814.
112. Achenbach S, Ropers D, Regenfus M, et al. Noninvasive coronary angiography by magnetic resonance imaging, electron-beam computed tomography, and multislice computed tomography. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88:70E-73E.
113. Motro M, Shemesh J, Grossman E. Coronary benefits of calcium antagonist therapy for patients with hypertension. Curr Opin Cardiol 2001; 16:349-355.
114. Brown MJ, Palmer CR, Castaigne A, et al. Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study: Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension Treatment (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000; 356:366-372.
115. Smith Jr SC, Greenland P, Grundy SM. AHA Conference Proceedings, Prevention conference V: Beyond secondary prevention: Identifying the high-risk patient for primary prevention: Executive summary. American Heart Association. Circulation 2000; 101:111-116.
116. Greenland P, Smith Jr JS, Grundy SM. Improving coronary heart disease risk assessment in asymptomatic people: Role of traditional risk factors and noninvasive cardiovascular tests. Circulation 2001; 104:1863-1867.
117. O'Rourke RA, Brundage BH, Froelicher VF, et al. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Expert Consensus document on electron-beam computed tomography for the diagnosis and prognosis of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2000; 102:126-140.
118. Karnegis JN, Heinz J. The risk of diagnostic cardiovascular catheterization. Am Heart J 1979; 97:291-297.
119. Gersh BJ, Kronmal RA, Frye RL, et al. Coronary arteriography and coronary artery bypass surgery: Morbidity and mortality in patients ages 65 years or older. A report from the Coronary Artery Surgery Study. Circulation 1983; 67:483-491.
120. Bunce NH, Pennell DJ. Magnetic resonance of coronary arteries. Eur Radiol 2001; 11:721-731. This article reviews the development as well as the current clinical applications for MRCA.
121. van Geuns RJ, Wielopolski PA, de Bruin HG, et al. MR coronary angiography with breath-hold targeted volumes: Preliminary clinical results. Radiology 2000; 217:270-277.
122. Regenfus M, Ropers D, Achenbach S, et al. Noninvasive detection of coronary artery stenosis using contrast-enhanced three-dimensional breathhold magnetic resonance coronary angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36:44-50.
123. Sensky PR, Jivan A, Hudson NM, et al. Coronary artery disease: Combined stress MR imaging protocol-one-stop evaluation of myocardial perfusion and function. Radiology 2000; 215:608-614.
124. Nieman K, Oudkerk M, Rensing BJ, et al. Coronary angiography with multislice computed tomography. Lancet 2001; 357:599-603.
125. Kim WY, Danias PC, Stuber M, et al. Coronary magnetic resonance angiography for the detection of coronary stenoses. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1863-1869.
126. Kim WY, Stuber M, Bornert P, et al. Three dimensional black-blood cardiac magnetic resonance coronary vessel wall imaging detects positive arterial remodeling in patients with nonsignificant coronary artery disease. Circulation 2002; 106:296-299. This study investigated the accuracy of MRCA in detecting the early sequelae of CAD (subclinical atherosclerosis). MRCA identified an increased vessel wall thickness without significant luminal stenosis in patients with subclinical CAD (angiographically proven stenoses of 10-50% diameter reduction).
127. Choudhury RP, Fuster V, Badimon JJ, et al. MRI and characterization of atherosclerotic plaque: Emerging applications and molecular imaging. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:1065-1074.