Modifiable risk factors for colon cancer

Gastroenterology Clinics of North America

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 925-943

  Giovannucci, Edward ^a,b  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; CALCIUM; CARBOHYDRATE DERIVATIVE; CAROTENOID; CELECOXIB; ESTROGEN; FOLIC ACID; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETACIN; METHIONINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PIROXICAM; SELENIUM; SOMATOMEDIN C; SULINDAC;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; CANCER RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLON CANCER; COLONOSCOPY; DIET; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY FIBER; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ULCER; DRUG EFFICACY; ENERGY BALANCE; FOOD PROCESSING; FRUIT; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMAN; HYPERINSULINISM; INSULIN RESISTANCE; KIDNEY INJURY; LIFESTYLE; MACRONUTRIENT; MEAT; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PLANT PRODUCT; PRIMARY PREVENTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIGMOIDOSCOPY; SMOKING; VEGETABLE;

CLINICAL TRIALS; COLONIC NEOPLASMS; DIET; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0036894435     PISSN: 08898553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0889-8553(02)00057-2     Document Type: Review

References (197)

1. Landis SH, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. Cancer Statistics, 1999. CA Cancer J Clin 1999;49:8-31.
2. Doll R, Peto R. Avoidable risks of cancer in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;66:1196-265.
3. Wu AH, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Alcohol, physical activity and other risk factors for colorectal cancer: A prospective study. Br J Cancer 1987;55:687-94.
4. Lee IM, Paffenbarger RS Jr, Hsieh CC. Physical activity and risk of developing colorectal cancer among college alumni. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83:1324-9.
5. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Physical activity, obesity, and risk for colon cancer and adenoma in men. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:327-34.
6. Bostick RM, Potter JD, Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Steinmetz KA, McKenzie DR, et al. Sugar, meat, and fat intake, and non-dietary risk factors for colon cancer incidence in Iowa women (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1994;5:38-52.
7. Lew EA, Garfinkel L. Variations in mortality by weight among 750,000 men and women. J Chronic Dis 1979;32:563-76.
8. Waaler HT. Height, weight and mortality. The Norwegian experience. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1984;679:1-56.
9. Phillips RL, Snowdon DA. Dietary relationships with fatal colorectal cancer among Seventh-Day Adventists. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985;74:307-17.
10. Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Conner E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O. Dietary vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: A 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet 1985;1:307-9.
11. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Friedman GD, Hiatt RA. The relations of alcoholic beverage use to colon and rectal cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1988;128:1007-15.
12. Must A, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1350-5.
13. Le Marchand L, Wilkins LR, Mi MP. Obesity in youth and middle age and risk of colorectal cancer in men. Cancer Causes Control 1992;3:349-54.
14. Chute CG, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE. A prospective study of reproductive history and exogenous estrogens on the risk of colorectal cancer in women. Epidemiology 1991;2:201-7.
15. Martinez ME, Giovannucci E, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Leisure-time physical activity, body size, and colon cancer in women. Nurses' Health Study Research Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997;89:948-55.
16. Terry P, Giovannucci E, Bergkvist L, Holmberg L, Wolk A. Body weight and colorectal cancer risk in a cohort of Swedish women: Relation varies by age and cancer site. Br J Cancer 2001;85:346-9.
17. Colditz G, Cannuscio C, Frazier A. Physical activity and reduced risk of colon cancer: Implications for prevention. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:649-67.
18. Giovannucci E. Insulin and colon cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1995;6:164-79.
19. Hu FB, Manson JE, Liu S, Hunter D, Colditz GA, Michels KB, et al. Prospective study of adult onset diabetes mellitus (Type 2) and risk of colorectal cancer in women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:542-7.
20. Schoen RE, Tangen CM, Kuller LH, Burke GL, Cushman M, Tracy RP, et al. Increased blood glucose and insulin, body size, and incident colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:1147-54.
21. Cats A, Dullaart R, Kleibeuker J, Kuipers F, Sluiter W, Hardonk M, et al. Increased epithelial cell proliferation in the colon of patients with acromegaly. Cancer Res 1996; 56:523-6.
22. Jenkins P, Fairclough P, Richards T, Lowe D, Monson J, Grossman A, et al. Acromegaly, colonic polyps and carcinoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997;47:17-22.
23. Ma J, Pollak MN, Giovannucci E, Chan JM, Tao T, Hennekens CH, et al. Prospective study of colorectal cancer risk in men and plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-binding protein-3. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:620-5.
24. Giovannucci E, Pollak MN, Platz EA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Majeed N, et al. A prospective study of plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and binding protein-3 and risk of colorectal neoplasia in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9:345-9.
25. Giovannucci E. Insulin, insulin-like growth factors and colon cancer: A review of the evidence. J Nutr 2001;131:3109S-20S.
26. Howe GR. Advances in the biology and therapy of colorectal cancer. Presented at M.D. Anderson's 37th Annual Clinical Conference. M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, 1993.
27. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Relation of meat, fat, and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1664-72.
28. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Willett WC. Intake of fat, meat, and fiber in relation to risk of colon cancer in men. Cancer Res 1994;54:2390-7.
29. Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, van't Veer P, Brants HA, Dorant E, Sturmans F, et al. A prospective cohort study on the relation between meat consumption and the risk of colon cancer. Cancer Res 1994;54:718-23.
30. Stemmermann GN, Nomura AM, Heilbrun LK. Dietary fat and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 1984;44:4633-7.
31. Gerhardsson M, Floderus B, Norell SE. Physical activity and colon cancer risk. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:743-6.
32. Bjelke E. Epidemiology of colorectal cancer, with emphasis on diet. In: Davis W, Harrup KR, Stathopoulos G, editors. Human Cancer. Its Characterization and Treatment. Amsterdam: Congress Series No. 484: Exerpta Medica, Int.; 1980. p. 158-74.
33. Hirayama T. A large-scale study on cancer risks by diet - With special reference to the risk reducing effects of green-yellow vegetable consumption. In: Hayashi Y, Magao M, Sugimura T, et al, editors. Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer. Tokyo: Japan Scientific Societies Press; 1986. p. 41-53.
34. Phillips RL, Snowdon DA. Association of meat and coffee use with cancers of the large bowel, breast, and prostate among Seventh-Day Adventists: Preliminary results. Cancer Res 1983;43(Suppl):2403S-8S.
35. Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Hagman U, Peters RK, Steineck G, Overik E. Meat, cooking methods and colorectal cancer: A case-referent study in Stockholm. Int J Cancer 1991;49: 520-5.
36. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Lee J, Day NE. Colorectal cancer and diet in an Asian population-a case-control study among Singapore Chinese. Int J Cancer 1989;43: 1007-16.
37. Norat T, Lukanova A, Ferrari P, Riboli E. Meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: Dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 2002;98: 241-56.
38. Sugimura T, Sato S. Mutagens-carcinogens in foods. Cancer Res 1983;43:2415S-21S.
39. Sugimura T. Carcinogenicity of mutagenic heterocyclic amines formed during the cooking process. Mutat Res 1985;150:33-41.
40. Wakabayashi K, Nagao M, Esumi H, Sugimura T. Food-derived mutagens and carcinogens. Cancer Res 1992;52:2092S-8S.
41. Sandhu MS, White IR, McPherson K. Systematic review of the prospective cohort studies on meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: A meta-analytic approach. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001;10:439-46.
42. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Relation of meat, fat and fiber intake to colon cancer risk in a prospective study among women [abstract]. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:820.
43. Karo I, Tominaga S, Matsuura A, Yoshii Y, Shirai M, Kobayashi S. A comparative casecontrol study of colorectal cancer and adenoma. Jpn J Cancer Res 1990;81:1101-8.
44. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Willett WC. Relationship of diet to risk of colorectal adenoma in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:91-8.
45. Benito E, Cabeza E, Moreno V, Obrador A, Bosch FX. Diet and colorectal adenomas: A case-control study in Majorca. Int J Cancer 1993;55:213-9.
46. Neugut AI, Garbowski GC, Lee WC, Murray T, Nieves JW, Forde KA, et al. Dietary risk factors for the incidence and recurrence of colorectal adenomatous polyps: A case-control study. Ann Int Med 1993; 118:91-5.
47. Sandler RS, Lyles CM, Peipins LA, McAuliffe CA, Woosley JT, Kupper LL. Diet and risk of colorectal adenomas: Macronutrients, cholesterol and fiber. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85:884-91.
48. Kune GA, Kune S, Watson LF. The nutritional causes of colorectal cancer: An introduction to the Melbourne Study. Nutr Cancer 1987;9:5-56.
49. Graham S, Marshall J, Haughey B, Mittelman A, Swanson M, Zielezny M, et al. Dietary epidemiology of cancer of the colon in western New York. Am J Epidemiol 1988;128: 490-503.
50. West DW, Slattery ML, Robison LM, Schuman KL, Ford MH, Mahoney AW, et al. Dietary intake and colon cancer: Sex- and anatomic site-specific associations. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:883-94.
51. Peters RK, Pike MC, Garabrandt D, Mack TM. Diet and colon cancer in Los Angeles County, California. Cancer Causes Control 1992;3:457-73.
52. Miller AB, Howe GR, Jain M, Craib KJP, Harrison L. Food items and food groups as risk factors in a case-control study of diet and colo-rectal cancer. Int J Cancer 1983; 32:155-61.
53. Manousos O, Day NE, Trichopoulos D, Gerovassilis F, Tzanou A, Polychronopoulou A. Diet and colorectal cancer: A case-control study in Greece. Int J Cancer 1983;32:1-5.
54. Young TB, Wolf DA. Case-control study of proximal and distal colon cancer and diet in Wisconsin. Int J Cancer 1988;42:167-75.
55. Macquart-Moulin G, Riboli E, Cornee J, Charnay B, Berthezene P, Day N. Case-control study on colorectal cancer and diet in Marseilles. Int J Cancer 1986;38:183-91.
56. Phillips RL. Role of life-style and dietary habits in risk of cancer among Seventh-Day Adventists. Cancer Res 1975;35:3513-22.
57. Mayne ST, Janerich DT, Greenwald P, Chorost S, Tucci C, Zaman MB, et al. Dietary beta carotene and lung cancer risk in U.S. nonsmokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:33-8.
58. Modan B, Barell V, Lubin F, Modan M, Greenberg RA, Graham S. Low-fiber intake as an etiologic factor in cancer of the colon. J Natl Cancer Inst 1975;55:15-8.
59. Tuyns AJ, Kaaks R, Haelterman M. Colorectal cancer and the consumption of foods: A case-control study in Belgium. Nutr Cancer 1988;11:189-204.
60. Steinmetz KA, Kushi LH, Bostick RM, Folsom AR, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit, and colon cancer in the Iowa Women's Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:1-15.
61. Benito E, Stiggelbout A, Bosch FX, Obrador A, Kaldor J, Mulet M, et al. Nutritional factors in colorectal cancer risk: A case-control study in Majorca. Int J Cancer 1991; 49:161-7.
62. Trock B, Lanza E, Greenwald P. Dietary fiber, vegetables, and colon cancer: Critical review and meta-analyses of the epidemiologic evidence. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990;82:650-61.
63. Slattery ML, Schumacher MC, Smith KR, West DW, Abd-Elghany N. Physical activity, diet, and risk of colon cancer in Utah. Am J Epidemiol 1988;128:989-99.
64. Whittemore AS, Wu-Williams AH, Lee M, Zheng S, Gallagher RP, Jiao DA, et al. Diet, physical activity and colorectal cancer among Chinese in North America and China. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990;82:915-26.
65. Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Hagman U, Steineck G, Rieger A, Norell SE. Diet, body mass and colorectal cancer: A case-referent study in Stockholm. Int J Cancer 1990;46:832-8.
66. Meyer F, White E. Alcohol and nutrients in relation to colon cancer in middle-aged adults. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:225-36.
67. Benito E, Obrador A, Stiggelbout A, Bosch FX, Mulet M, Mufioz N, et al. A populationbased case-control study of colorectal cancer in Majorca. I. Dietary factors. Int J Cancer 1990;45:69-76.
68. Zaridze D, Filipchenko V, Kustov V, Serdyuk V, Duffy S. Diet and colorectal cancer: Results of two case-control studies in Russia. Eur J Cancer 1993;29A: 112-5.
69. Jain M, Cook GM, Davis FG, Grace MG, Howe GR, Miller AB. A case-control study of diet and colo-rectal cancer. Int J Cancer 1980;26:757-68.
70. Tuyns AJ, Haelterman M, Kaaks R. Colorectal cancer and the intake of nutrients: Oligosaccharides are a risk factor, fats are not. A case-control study in Belgium. Nutr Cancer 1987;10:181-96.
71. Lyon JL, Mahoney AW, West DW, Gardner JW, Smith KR, Sorenson AW, et al. Energy intake: Its relationship to colon cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987;78:853-61.
72. Howe GR, Benito E, Castelleto R, Cornee J, Esteve J, Gallagher RP, et al. Dietary intake of fiber and decreased risk of cancers of the colon and rectum: Evidence from the combined analysis of 13 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:1887-96.
73. Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE, Giovannucci E, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fiber and the risk of colorectal cancer and adenoma in women. N Engl J Med 1999;340:169-76.
74. Michels KB, Giovannucci E, Joshipura KJ, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Fuchs CS, et al. Prospective study of fruit and vegetable consumption and incidence of colon and rectal cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1740-52.
75. Schatzkin A, Lanza E, Corle D, Lance P, Iber F, Caan B, et al. Lack of effect of a low-fat, high-fiber diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Polyp Prevention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1149-55.
76. Alberts DS, Martinez ME, Roe DJ, Guillen-Rodriguez JM, Marshall JR, van Leeuwen JB, et al. Lack of effect of a high-fiber cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Phoenix Colon Cancer Prevention Physicians' Network. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1156-62.
77. Bonithon-Kopp C, Kronborg O, Giacosa A, Rath U, Faivre J. Calcium and fibre supplementation in prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: A randomized intervention trial. Lancet 2000;356:1300-6.
78. van der Meer R, de Vries HT. Differential binding of glycine- and taurine-conjugated bile acids to insoluble calcium phosphate. Biochem J 1985;229:265-8.
79. Newmark HL, Wargovich MJ, Bruce WR. Colon cancer and dietary fat, phosphate, and calcium: A hypothesis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1984;72:1323-5.
80. Lipkin M, Newmark H. Effect of added dietary calcium on colonic epithelial-cell proliferation in subjects at high risk for familial colonic cancer. N Engl J Med 1985; 313:1381-4.
81. Martinez ME, Willett WC. Calcium, vitamin D, and colorectal cancer: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998;7:163-8.
82. Baron JA, Beach M, Mandel JS, van Stolk RU, Haile RW, Sandler RS, et al. Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 1999;340:101-7.
83. Faivre J, Bonithon-Kopp C, Medicinne CINE FD. A randomized trial of calcium and fiber supplementation in the prevention of recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Presented at the American Gastroenterological Association Annual Meeting. Orlando, 1999.
84. Wu K, Willett WC, Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Giovannucci E. Calcium intake and risk of colon cancer in women and men. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:437-46.
85. Ma J, Giovannucci E, Pollak M, Chan JM, Gaziano JM, Willett W, et al. Milk intake, circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, and risk of colorectal cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:1330-6.
86. The Alpha-Tocopherol Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1029-35.
87. Clark LC, Combs GF Jr, Turnbull BW, Slate EH, Chalker DK, Chow J, et al. Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin. A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group. JAMA 1996;276:1957-63.
88. MacLennan R, Macrae F, Bain C, Battistutta D, Chapuis P, Gratten H, et al. Randomized trial of intake of fat, fiber, and beta carotene to prevent colorectal adenomas. The Australian Polyp Prevention Project. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1760-6.
89. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Tosteson TD, Freeman DH, Beck GJ, Bond JH, et al. A clinical trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent colorectal adenoma. N Engl J Med 1994;331:141-7.
90. Paganelli GM, Biasco G, Brandi G, Santucci R, Gizzi G, Villani V, et al. Effect of vitamin A, C, and E supplementation on rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal adenomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:47-51.
91. 12- and folate-deficient patients misincorporate uracil into DNA. Blood 1994;83:1656-61.
92. Weinberg G, Ullman B, Martin Jr DW. Mutator phenotypes in mammalian cell mutants with distinct biochemical defects and abnormal deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate pools. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981;78:2447-51.
93. Meuth M. Role of deoxynucleoside triphosphate pools in the cytotoxic and mutagenic effects of DNA alkylating agents. Somat Cell Genet 1981;7:89-102.
94. Sutherland GR. The role of nucleotides in human fragile site expression. Mutat Res 1988;200:207-13.
95. 12 and folic acid. Carcinogenesis 1994;15: 1405-11.
96. Hunting DJ, Dresler SL. Dependence of u.v.-induced DNA excision repair on deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate concentrations in permeable human fibroblasts: A model for the inhibition of repair by hydroxyurea. Carcinogenesis (Lond) 1985;6:1525-8.
97. James SJ, Basnakian AG, Miller BJ. In vitro folate deficiency induces deoxynucleotide pool imbalance, apoptosis, and mutagenesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Cancer Res 1994;54:5075-80.
98. Blount BC, Mack MM, Wehr CM, MacGregor JT, Hiatt RA, Wang G, et al. Folate deficiency causes uracil misincorporation into human DNA and chromosome breakage: Implications for cancer and neuronal damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94: 3290-5.
99. Cravo M, Fidalgo P, Pereira AD, Gouveia-Oliveira A, Chavas P, Selhub J, et al. DNA methylation as an intermediate biomarker in colorectal cancer: Modulation by folic acid supplementation. Eur J Cancer Prev 1994;3:473-9.
100. Feinberg AP, Vogelstein B. Hypomethylation distinguishes genes of some human cancers from their normal counterparts. Nature 1983;301:89-92.
101. Goelz SE, Vogelstein B, Hamilton SR, Feinberg AP. Hypomethylation of DNA from benign and malignant human colon neoplasms. Science 1985;228:187-90.
102. Feinberg AP, Gehrke CW, Kuo KC, Ehrlich M. Reduced genomic 5-methylcytosine content in human colonic neoplasia. Cancer Res 1988;48:1159-61.
103. Issa J-PJ, Vertino PM, Wu J, Sazawal S, Celano P, Nelkin BD, et al. Increased cytosine DNA-methyltransferase activity during colon cancer progression. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1235-40.
104. Makos M, Nelkin BD, Lerman MI, Latif F, Zbar B, Baylin SB. Distinct hypermethylation patterns occur at altered chromosome loci in human lung and colon cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992;89:1929-33.
105. Cravo ML, Mason JB, Dayal Y, Hutchinson M, Smith D, Selhub J, et al. Folate deficiency enhances the development of colonic neoplasia in dimethylhydrazine-treated rats. Cancer Res 1992;52:5002-6.
106. Ferraroni M, La Vecchia C, D'Avanzo B, Negri E, Franceschi S, Decarli A. Selected micronutrient intake and the risk of colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 1994;70:1150-5.
107. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, Haughey BP, Cholewinski S, Wilkinson G. Folate intake and carcinogenesis of the colon and rectum. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20: 368-74.
108. White E, Shannon JS, Patterson RE. Relationship between vitamin and calcium supplement use and colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:769-74.
109. Glynn SA, Albanes D, Pietinen P, Brown CC, Rautalahti M, Tangrea JA, et al. Colorectal cancer and folate status: A nested case-control study among male smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1996;5:487-94.
110. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Alcohol, low-methionine-low-folate diets, and risk of colon cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:265-73.
111. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Fuchs C, Rosner BA, et al. Multivitamin use, folate, and colon cancer in women in the Nurses' Health Study. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:517-24.
112. Ma J, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Artigas C, Hunter DJ, Fuchs C, et al. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphism, dietary interactions, and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 1997;57:1098-102.
113. Bird CL, Swendseid ME, Witte JS, Shikany JM, Hunt IF, Frankl HD, et al. Red cell and plasma folate, folate consumption, and the risk of colorectal adenomatous polyps. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1995;4:709-14.
114. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Trichopolous D, Rosner BA, et al. Folate, methionine, and alcohol intake and risk of colorectal adenoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:875-84.
115. Jacobs EJ, Connell CJ, Patel AV, Chao A, Rodriguez C, Seymour J, et al. Multivitamin use and colon cancer mortality in the Cancer Prevention Study II cohort (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2001;12:927-34.
116. Fuchs CS, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE, et al. The influence of folate and multivitamin use on the familial risk of colon cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:227-34.
117. Chen J, Giovannucci E, Kelsey K, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. A methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphism and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 1996;56:4862-4.
118. Slattery ML, Potter JD, Samowitz W, Schaffer D, Leppert M. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, diet, and risk of colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999;8: 513-8.
119. Kune GA, Vitetta L. Alcohol consumption and the etiology of colorectal cancer: A review of the scientific evidence from 1957 to 1991. Nutr Cancer 1992;18:97-111.
120. Hirayama T. Association between alcohol consumption and cancer of the sigmoid colon: Observations from a Japanese cohort study. Lancet 1989;2(8665):25-7.
121. Stemmermann GN, Nomura AMY, Chyou P-H, Yoshizawa C. Prospective study of alcohol intake and large bowel cancer. Dig Dis Sci 1990;35:1414-20.
122. Carstensen JM, Bygren LO, Hatschek T. Cancer incidence among Swedish brewery workers. Int J Cancer 1990;45:393-6.
123. Bjelke E. Epidemiologic studies of cancer of the stomach, colon and rectum; with special emphasis on the role of diet. Scand J Gastroenterol 1974;31:1-235.
124. Williams RR, Horm JW. Association of cancer sites with tobacco and alcohol consumption and socioeconomic status of patients: Interview study from the Third National Cancer Survey. J Natl Cancer Inst 1977;58:525-47.
125. Dean G, MacLennan R, McLoughlin H, Shelley E. Causes of death of blue-collar workers at a Dublin brewery 1954-73. Br J Cancer 1979;40:581-9.
126. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, et al. Lifetime alcohol intake and risk of rectal cancer in Western New York. Nutr Cancer 1990;13:101-9.
127. Longnecker MP. A case-control study of alcoholic beverage consumption in relation to risk of cancer of the right colon and rectum in men. Cancer Causes Control 1990;1: 5-14.
128. Kune S, Kune GA, Watson LF. Case-control study of alcoholic beverages as etiological factors: The Melbourne colorectal cancer study. Nutr Cancer 1987;9:43-56.
129. Tuyns AJ, Pequignot G, Gignoux M, Valla A. Cancers of the digestive tract, alcohol and tobacco. Int J Cancer 1982;30:9-11.
130. Ward K, Moriarty KJ, O'Neill S, Clark ML, Dean G. Alcohol and colorectal cancer [abstract]. Gut 1983;24:A981.
131. Kabat GC, Howson CP, Wynder EL. Beer consumption and rectal cancer. Int J Epidemiol 1986;15:494-501.
132. Potter JD, McMichael AJ. Diet and cancer of the colon and rectum: A case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1986;76:557-69.
133. Newcomb PA, Storer BE, Marcus PM. Cancer of the large bowel in women in relation to alcohol consumption: A case-control study in Wisconsin (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1993;4:405-11.
134. Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, Vecchia CL, Corrao G. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk. Br J Cancer 2001;85:1700-5.
135. Barak AJ, Beckenhauer HC, Tuma DJ, Badakhsh S. Effects of prolonged ethanol feeding on methionine metabolism in rat liver. Biochem Cell Biol 1987;65:230-3.
136. Finkelstein JD, Cello JP, Kyle WE. Ethanol-induced changes in methionine metabolism in rat liver. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1974;61:525-31.
137. Shaw S, Jayatilleke E, Herbert V, Colman N. Cleavage of folates during ethanol metabolism: Role of acetaldehyde/xanthine oxidase-generated superoxide. Biochem J 1989;257: 277-80.
138. Giovannucci E, Martinez ME. Tobacco, colorectal cancer, and adenomas: A review of the evidence. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:1717-30.
139. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Kearney J, et al. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of colorectal adenoma and colorectal cancer in U.S. men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:183-91.
140. Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Hunter D, Rosner BA, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of colorectal adenoma and colorectal cancer in U.S. women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:192-9.
141. Slattery ML, West DW, Robison LM, French TK, Ford MH, Schuman KL, et al. Tobacco, alcohol, coffee, and caffeine as risk factors for colon cancer in a low-risk population. Epidemiology 1990;1:141-5.
142. Heineman EF, Zahm SH, McLaughlin JK, Vaught JB. Increased risk of colorectal cancer among smokers: Results of a 26-year follow-up of US veterans and a review. Int J Cancer 1994;59:728-38.
143. Newcomb PA, Storer BE, Marcus PM. Cigarette smoking in relation to risk of large bowel cancer in women. Cancer Res 1995;55:4906-9.
144. Slattery ML, Potter JD, Friedman GD, Ma K-N, Edwards S. Tobacco use and colon cancer. Int J Cancer 1997;70:259-64.
145. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Chow W-H, Schuman LM, Co Chien HT, Gridley G, et al. Risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective study among U.S. white men. Int J Cancer 1998;77:549-53.
146. Knekt P, Hakama M, Järvinen R, Pukkala E, Heliövaara M. Smoking and risk of colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 1998;78:136-9.
147. Le Marchand L, Wilkens LR, Kolonel LN, Hankin JH, Lyu L-C. Associations of sedentary lifestyle, obesity, smoking, alcohol use, and diabetes with the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 1997;57:4787-94.
148. Yamada K, Araki S, Tamura M, Sakai I, Takahashi Y, Kashihara H, et al. Case-control study of colorectal carcinoma in situ and cancer in relation to cigarette smoking and alcohol use (Japan). Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:780-5.
149. Chyou P-H, Nomura AMY, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of colon and rectal cancer among Hawaii Japanese men. Ann Epidemiol 1996;6:276-82.
150. Freedman AN, Michalek AM, Marshall JR, Mettlin CJ, Petrelli NJ, Zhang ZF, et al. The relationship between smoking exposure and p53 overexpression in colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 1996;73:902-8.
151. Baron JA, Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Ekbom A. Coffee, tea, tobacco, and cancer of the large bowel. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1994;3:565-70.
152. Nordlund LA, Carstensen JM, Pershagen G. Cancer incidence in female smokers: A 26-year follow-up. Int J Cancer 1997;73:625-8.
153. Nyrén O, Bergström R, Nyström L, Engholm G, Ekbom A, Adami H-O, et al. Smoking and colorectal cancer: A 20-year follow-up study of Swedish construction workers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:1302-7.
154. Tavani A, Pregnolato A, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S. Coffee and tea intake and risk of cancers of the colon and rectum: A study of 3,530 cases and 7,057 controls. Int J Cancer 1997;73:193-7.
155. Alexandrov K, Rojas M, Kadlubar FF, Lang NP, Bartsch H. Evidence of antibenzo[a]pyrene diolepoxide-DNA adduct formation in human colon mucosa. Carcinogenesis 1996;17:2081-3.
156. Chao A, Thun MJ, Jacobs EJ, Henley SH, Rodriguez C, Calle EE. Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer mortality in the Cancer Prevention Study II. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92:1888-96.
157. Kune GA, Kune S, Watson LF. Colorectal cancer risk, chronic illnesses, operations, and medications: Case control results from the Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study. Cancer Res 1988;48:4399-404.
158. Rosenberg L, Palmer J, Zauber A, Warshauer M, Stolley P, Shapiro S. A hypothesis: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduce the incidence of large-bowel cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83:355-8.
159. Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Heath Jr CW. Aspirin use and reduced risk of fatal colon cancer. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1593-6.
160. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Willett WC. Aspirin use and the risk for colorectal cancer and adenoma in male health professionals. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:241-6.
161. Giovannucci E, Egan KM, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. Aspirin and the risk of colorectal cancer in women. N Engl J Med 1995;333:609-14.
162. Suh O, Mettlin C, Petrelli NJ. Aspirin use, cancer, and polyps of the large bowel. Cancer 1993;72:1171-7.
163. Logan RF, Little J, Hawtin PG, Hardcastle JD. Effect of aspirin and non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs on colorectal adenomas: Case-control study of subjects participating in the Nottingham faecal occult blood screening programme. BMJ 1993;307:285-9.
164. Martinez ME, McPherson RS, Levin B, Annegers JF. Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of colorectal adenomatous polyps among endoscoped individuals. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1995;4:703-7.
165. Narisawa T, Sato M, Tani M, Kudo T, Takahashi T, Goto A. Inhibition of development of methylnitrosourea-induced rat colon tumors by indomethacin treatment. Cancer Res 1981;41:1954-7.
166. Pollard M, Luckert PH. Effect of piroxicam in primary intestinal tumors induced in rats by N-methylnitrosourea. Cancer Lett 1984;25:117-21.
167. Reddy BS, Maruyama H, Kelloff G. Dose-related inhibition of colon carcinogenesis by dietary piroxicam, a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug, during different stages of rat colon tumor development. Cancer Res 1987;47:5340-6.
168. Moorghen M, Ince P, Finney KJ, Sunter JP, Appleton DR, Watson AJ. A protective effect of sulindac against chemically-induced primary colonic tumours in mice. J Pathol 1988; 156:341-7.
169. Rigau J, Pique JM, Rubio E, Planas R, Tarrech JM, Bordas JM. Effects of long-term sulindac therapy on colonic polyposis. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:952-4.
170. Labayle D, Fischer D, Vielh P, Drouhin F, Pariente A, Bories C, et al. Sulindac causes regression of rectal polyps in familial adenomatous polyposis. Gastroenterology 1991; 101:635-9.
171. Giardiello FM, Hamilton SR, Krush AJ, Piantadosi S, Hylind LM, Celano P, et al. Treatment of colonic and rectal adenomas with sulindac in familial adenomatous polyposis. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1313-6.
172. Laakso M, Mutru O, Isomaki H, Koota K. Cancer mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1986;13:522-6.
173. Gridley G, McLaughlin JK, Ekbom A, Klareskog L, Adami HO, Hacker DG, et al. Incidence of cancer among patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:307-11.
174. Baron JA, Cole BF, Mott LA. Aspirin chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. Presented at the AACR 93rd Annual Meeting. San Francisco, 2002.
175. Paganini-Hill A, Chao A, Ross R, Henderson B. Aspirin use and chronic diseases: A cohort study of the elderly. BMJ 1989;299:1247-50.
176. Pennisi E. Building a better aspirin. Science 1998;280:1191-2.
177. Earnest DL, Hixon LJ, Alberts DS. Piroxicam and other cyclooxygenase inhibitors: Potential for cancer chemoprevention. J Cell Biochem Suppl 1992;161:156-66.
178. Reddy BS, Rao CV, Seibert K. Evaluation of cyclooxygenase inhibitor for potential chemopreventive properties in colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1996;56:4566-9.
179. Kawamori T, Rao CV, Seibert K, Reddy BS. Chemopreventive activity of celecoxib, a specific cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, against colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1998; 58:409-12.
180. Davis FG, Furner SE, Persky V, Koch M. The influence of parity and exogenous female hormones on the risk of colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer 1989;43:587-90.
181. Furner SE, Davis FG, Nelson RL, Haenszel W. A case-control study of large bowel cancer and hormone exposure in women. Cancer Res 1989;49:4936-40.
182. Gerhardsson de Verdier M, London S. Reproductive factors, exogenous female hormones, and colorectal cancer by subsite. Cancer Causes Control 1992;3:355-60.
183. Jacobs EJ, White E, Weiss NS. Exogenous hormones, reproductive history, and colon cancer (Seattle, Washington, USA). Cancer Causes Control 1994;5:359-66.
184. Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL, Thun MJ, Heath CW Jr. Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of fatal colon cancer in a prospective cohort of postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:517-23.
185. Marcus PM, Newcomb PA, Young T, Storer BE. The association of reproductive and menstrual characteristics and colon and rectal cancer risk in Wisconsin women. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5:303-9.
186. Newcomb PA, Storer BE. Postmenopausal hormone use and risk of large-bowel cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1067-71.
187. Folsom AR, Mink PJ, Sellers TA, Hong CP, Zheng W, Potter JD. Hormone replacement therapy and morbidity and mortality in a prospective study of postmenopausal women. Am J Public Health 1995;85:1128-32.
188. Fernandez E, La Vecchia C, A'Avanzo B, Franceschi S, Negri E, Parazzini F. Oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 1996;73:1431-5.
189. Grodstein F, Martinez ME, Platz EA, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Kautzky M, et al. Postmenopausal hormone use and risk for colorectal cancer and adenoma. Ann Intern Med 1998;128:705-12.
190. Weiss NS, Daling JR, Chow WH. Incidence of cancer of the large bowel in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;67:57-60.
191. Wu-Williams AH, Lee M, Whittemore AS, Gallagher RP, Jiao DA, Zheng S, et al. Reproductive factors and colorectal cancer risk among Chinese females. Cancer Res 1991;51:2307-11.
192. Risch HA, Howe GR. Menopausal hormone use and colorectal cancer in Saskatchewan: A record linkage cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1995;4:21-8.
193. Peters RK, Pike MC, Chang WWL, Mack MT. Reproductive factors and colon cancer. Br J Cancer 1990;61:741-8.
194. Troisi R, Schairer C, Chow W-H, Schatzkin A, Brinton LA, Fraumeni JF Jr. A prospective study of menopausal hormones and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:130-8.
195. Kampman E, Potter JD, Slattery ML, Caan BJ, Edwards S. Hormone replacement therapy, reproductive history, and colon cancer: A multicenter, case-control study in the United States. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:146-58.
196. Posaci C, Altunyurt S, Islekel H, Onvural A. Effects of HRT on serum levels of IGF-I in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2001;40:69-74.
197. Platz EA, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Giovannucci E. Proportion of colon cancer risk that might be preventable in a cohort of middle-aged US men. Cancer Causes Control 2000;11:579-88.